Chinese sovereign
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The Chinese sovereign was the ruler of a particular monarchical regime in the historical periods of ancient China and imperial China. Sovereigns ruling the same regime, and descended from the same paternal line, constituted a dynasty. Several titles and naming schemes have been used throughout Chinese history.
Sovereign titles[edit]
Emperor[edit]
The characters Huang (
From the Han dynasty, the title Huangdi could also be abbreviated to huang or di. The former nobility titles Qing (
The power of the emperor varied between emperors and dynasties, with some emperors being absolute rulers and others being figureheads with actual power lying in the hands of court factions, eunuchs, the bureaucracy or noble families. In principle, the title of emperor was transmitted from father to son via primogeniture, as endorsed by Confucianism. However, there are many exceptions to this rule. For example, because the Emperor usually had many concubines, the first born of the empress (i.e. the chief consort) is usually the heir apparent. However, Emperors could elevate another more favoured child or the child of a favourite concubine to the status of Crown Prince. Disputes over succession occurred regularly and have led to a number of civil wars. In the Qing dynasty, primogeniture was abandoned altogether, with the designated heir kept secret until after the Emperor's death.
Of the San Huang Wu Di, the three first of them were called
King[edit]
The king (
Son of Heaven[edit]
"Son of Heaven" was a title of the Emperor based on the Mandate of Heaven. The Son of Heaven is a universal emperor who rules tianxia comprising "all under heaven".[1] The title was not interpreted literally. The monarch is a mortal chosen by Heaven, not its actual descendant.[2] The title comes from the Mandate of Heaven, created by the monarchs of the Zhou dynasty to justify deposing the Shang dynasty. They declared that Heaven had revoked the mandate from the Shang and given it to the Zhou in retaliation for their corruption and misrule. Heaven bestowed the mandate to whoever was best fit to rule. The title held the emperor responsible for the prosperity and security of his people through the threat of losing the mandate.[2]
Unlike the Japanese emperor for example, Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as imperial families could be replaced. This is based on the concept of the Mandate of Heaven. The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the Son of Heaven. As the only legitimate ruler, his authority extended to "all under heaven" and had neighbors only in a geographical sense. He holds a mandate to which he had a valid claim to rule over (or to lead) everyone else in the world as long as he served the people well. If the ruler became immoral, then rebellion is justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This single most important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties regardless of social or ethnic background. This principle made it possible for dynasties founded by families of non-noble origins such as the Han dynasty and the Ming dynasty or non-ethnic Han dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the Mandate of Heaven. Every dynasty that self-consciously adopted this administrative practice powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.
Finally, it was generally not possible for a woman to succeed to the throne and in the history of China there has only been one reigning Empress, Wu Zetian (624–705 CE), who usurped the throne of the Tang dynasty.
Self-made titles[edit]
Xiang Yu styled himself Xīchǔ Bàwáng (
Non-Han titles taken by Chinese rulers[edit]
Emperor Taizong of Tang was crowned Tian Kehan
Monarchical titles[edit]
Chinese monarchs possessed an elaborate set of monarchical titles, both when they were alive and after their death. Based on Chinese historiographical convention, monarchs of China are typically referred to by one of their many titles, although it is not incorrect per se to reference them using other titles that they held. Even though exceptions exist, Chinese rulers until the end of the Sui dynasty are mainly referred to by their posthumous names, monarchs from the Tang dynasty to the Yuan dynasty are generally known by their temple names, while rulers from the Ming dynasty onwards are typically known by their era names. As some of these titles were used repeatedly throughout history, historians often reference the name of the regime to avoid potential confusion. The same monarchical tradition was adopted throughout the Chinese cultural sphere.
General format in Mandarin Chinese:
Regnal name[edit]
Regnal names (
Personal name (Surname + given name) |
Regnal name | Dynasty |
---|---|---|
Ying Zheng 嬴政 |
Shi Huangdi |
Qin |
Wu Zhao |
Emperor Cishi Yuegu Jinlun Shengshen 慈氏 |
Wu Zhou |
Liu Jiyuan |
Emperor Yingwu |
Northern Han |
Zhao Heng |
Emperor Yingtian Zundao Qinming Renxiao |
Northern Song |
Yelü Dashi 耶律 |
Emperor Tianyou |
Western Liao |
Borjigin Kublai 孛兒 |
Emperor Xiantian Shudao Renwen Yiwu Daguang Xiao |
Yuan |
Era name[edit]
Era names (
Although a specific era name could be used by one monarch only, there were also many instances in which an era name was used by multiple monarchs, or a monarch could proclaim numerous era names throughout his/her reign. For this reason, it would be tedious for Chinese monarchs before the Ming dynasty to be referred to by their era names.
Personal name (Surname + given name) |
Era name(s) | Dynasty |
---|---|---|
Cao Pi 曹丕 |
Huangchu |
Cao Wei |
Fu Jian 苻堅 |
Yongxing Ganlu Jianyuan |
Former Qin |
Xiao Fangzhi |
Shaotai 紹泰 Taiping |
Liang |
Liu Yan |
Qianheng Bailong Dayou |
Southern Han |
Li Liangzuo |
Yansiningguo Tianyouchuisheng Fushengchengdao Duodu 奲都 Gonghua 拱化 |
Western Xia |
Zhu Zhanji |
Xuande |
Ming |
Temple name[edit]
Temple names (
Personal name (Surname + given name) |
Temple name | Dynasty |
---|---|---|
Yuan Ziyou |
Jingzong |
Northern Wei |
Yang Jian 楊堅 |
Gaozu |
Sui |
Li Dan |
Ruizong 睿宗 |
Tang |
Wang Jipeng |
Kangzong |
Min |
Wanyan Sheng |
Taizong |
Jin |
Aisin Gioro Xuanye |
Shengzu |
Qing |
Posthumous name[edit]
Posthumous names (謚號; shì hào) were accorded to Chinese monarchs after their death. These were adjectives originally intended to determine the achievements and moral values, or the lack thereof, of one's life.
Personal name (Surname + given name) |
Posthumous name | Dynasty |
---|---|---|
Ji Yun |
Duke Huan |
Lu |
Mi Wan 芈完 |
King Kaolie |
Chu |
Liu Zhao |
Emperor Xiaohe |
Eastern Han |
Qifu Qiangui 乞伏 |
Prince Wuyuan |
Western Qin |
Zhu Yujian |
Emperor Peitian Zhidao Hongyi Sumu Siwen Liewu Minren Guangxiao Xiang |
Southern Ming |
Aisin Gioro Zaitian |
Emperor Tongtian Chongyun Dazhong Zhizheng Jingwen Weiwu Renxiao Ruizhi Duanjian Kuanqin Jing |
Qing |
Historiographical denomination[edit]
Historians sometimes refer to certain Chinese rulers using generic terms, mostly due to their lack of regnal name, temple name or posthumous name. These terms describe the circumstances of the monarchs and are not officially accorded by the regimes themselves. The monarchical rank held by the rulers is affixed to the back of these adjectives to form the full historiographical denominations. For example, "Fèidì" (
Historiographical term | Meaning |
---|---|
Shào |
"Young" |
Yòu |
"Young" |
Fèi |
"Deposed" |
Xùn |
"Abdicated" |
Mò |
"Final" |
See also[edit]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
- ^ Ebrey 2010, p. 179.
- ^ a b Dull 1990, p. 59.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 249.
- ^ Lü, Zongli (2003). Power of the words: Chen prophecy in Chinese politics, AD 265-618. Peter Lang. ISBN 9783906769561.
- ^ Sogner, Sølvi (2001). Making Sense of Global History: The 19th International Congress of the Historical Sciences, Oslo 2000, Commemorative Volume. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215001067.
Sources[edit]
- Yap, Joseph P. (2009). "Official Titles and Institutional Terms - Qin and Han" pp612–620 and Chapter 1. pp 38–39 in "Wars With The Xiongnu - A Translation From Zizhi tongjian" . AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4490-0605-1
- Dull, Jack (1990). "The Evolution of Government in China". Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese Civilization. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06441-6.
- Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2010) [1996]. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12433-1.