Emperor Taizong of Tang
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Emperor Taizong of Tang | |||||||||||||||||
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Emperor of the Tang dynasty | |||||||||||||||||
Reign | 4 September 626[1] – 10 July 649 | ||||||||||||||||
Predecessor | Emperor Gaozu | ||||||||||||||||
Successor | Emperor Gaozong | ||||||||||||||||
Born | 28 January 598[2] Qingshan Palace,[3] Wugong,[4] Sui China | ||||||||||||||||
Died | 10 July 649 (aged 51)[5] Cuiwei Palace, Chang'an | ||||||||||||||||
Burial | |||||||||||||||||
Consorts | Empress Wende (m. 613; died 636) | ||||||||||||||||
Issue | See § Family | ||||||||||||||||
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House | Li | ||||||||||||||||
Dynasty | Tang | ||||||||||||||||
Father | Emperor Gaozu | ||||||||||||||||
Mother | Empress Taimu |
Tang Taizong | |||||||||||||||||||
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Chinese | |||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | "Great Ancestor of the Tang" | ||||||||||||||||||
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Qin Wang | |||||||||||||||||||
Chinese | |||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | King of Qin | ||||||||||||||||||
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Li Shimin | |||||||||||||||||||
Chinese | |||||||||||||||||||
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Emperor Taizong of Tang (28 January 598 – 10 July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty for his role in encouraging his father Li Yuan (Emperor Gaozu) to rebel against the Sui dynasty at Jinyang in 617. Taizong subsequently played a pivotal role in defeating several of the dynasty's most dangerous opponents and solidifying its rule over China proper.[6][c]
Taizong is considered to be one of the greatest emperors in China's history, and henceforth his reign became regarded as the exemplary model against which all future emperors were measured. His era, the "Reign of Zhenguan (Chinese:
In 630, Emperor Taizong sent his general Li Jing against the Eastern Turks, defeating and capturing their Jiali Khan Ashina Duobi and destroying their power. This made Tang the dominant power in East and Central Asia, and Emperor Taizong subsequently took the title of Tengeri Qaghan.[9] He also launched a series of campaigns against the oasis states of the Tarim Basin, and against their main ally, the Western Turks. During his reign, Tang armies annexed Karakhoja in 640, Karasahr in 644, and Kucha in 648.[10] Eventually, the Tang defeated and annexed the Western Turkic Khaganate after Su Dingfang defeated Qaghan Ashina Helu in 657.
Unlike much of the nobility in his time, Emperor Taizong was a frank rationalist and scholar of logic and scientific reason, openly scorning superstitions and claims of signs from the heavens. He also modified important rites in order to ease the burden of agricultural labour.[11] The modern Chinese historian Bo Yang opined that Emperor Taizong achieved greatness by enduring criticism which others would find difficult to accept whilst trying hard not to abuse his absolute power (using Emperor Yang of Sui as a negative example), as well as by employing capable chancellors such as Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, and Wei Zheng. Emperor Taizong's wife Empress Zhangsun also proved to be a capable assistant.[12]
Early life[edit]
Li Shimin was born in 598 at Wugong, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi.[13] His father Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, was a general of the Sui dynasty, and a nephew, by marriage, to Sui's founding emperor Emperor Wen. Li Shimin's grandmother Duchess Dugu was a sister of Empress Dugu, both of whom were daughters of Dugu Xin, a major Xianbei general during Sui's predecessor dynasty Northern Zhou.[14] Li Shimin's mother, Li Yuan's wife Duchess Dou, was a daughter of Dou Yi (竇毅), the Duke of Shenwu, and his wife, Northern Zhou's Princess Xiangyang. Li Shimin was also of partial Xianbei descent.[15][16][17][18][19] Duchess Dou bore Li Yuan four sons—an older brother to Li Shimin, Li Jiancheng, and two younger brothers, Li Yuanba (
Participation in the rebellion against Sui rule[edit]
Emperor Yang was soon dissatisfied with Li Yuan and Wang Rengong (
Fearful for his life, Li Yuan considered rebellion. However, he did not know that Li Shimin had also been secretly discussing plans for rebellion with Li Yuan's associates Pei Ji and Liu Wenjing. Once Li Shimin's plans matured, he had Pei inform Li Yuan of them—and also had Pei warn Li Yuan that if it were revealed that Li Yuan had had sexual relations with some of Emperor Yang's ladies in waiting at the secondary Jinyang Palace (
However, when Li Yuan arrived near Hedong, his army was bogged down by the weather. With food running out, there were rumors that the Eastern Turks and Liu Wuzhou would attack Taiyuan. Li Yuan initially ordered retreat, but at the earnest opposition by Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin, continued to advance. After defeating Sui forces at Huoyi (霍邑, also in modern Yuncheng), he decided to leave a small contingent to watch over Hedong while advancing across the Yellow River into Guanzhong (i.e., the Chang'an region). Once he did, he headed for Chang'an himself, while sending Li Jiancheng to capture the territory around the Tong Pass region to prevent Sui forces at Luoyang from reinforcing Chang'an and Li Shimin north of the Wei River to capture territory there. Meanwhile, Li Shimin's sister (Chai's wife) had also risen in rebellion in support of him, and she was able to gather a sizeable army and capture some cities. She joined forces with Li Shimin and her husband Chai Shao. Soon, Li Yuan reconsolidated his forces and put Chang'an under siege. In winter 617, after defeating a large Sui army, he captured Chang'an from imperial forces and declared Yang You emperor (as Emperor Gong). He had himself made regent (with the title of grand chancellor) and created the Prince of Tang. (Meanwhile, most of the Sui territories and armies did not recognize Emperor Gong as emperor and continued to recognize Emperor Yang as emperor and not as retired emperor.) He made Li Shimin the Duke of Qin.
Li Yuan's control of the Chang'an region became almost immediately contested by the rebel ruler Xue Ju, the Emperor of Qin, who sent his son Xue Rengao toward Chang'an. Li Yuan sent Li Shimin to resist Xue Rengao, and Li Shimin defeated Xue Rengao at Fufeng (in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), temporarily causing Xue Ju to toy with the idea of surrendering to Li Yuan, although Xue was subsequently dissuaded by his strategist Hao Yuan (郝瑗) from doing so.
In spring 618, with Sui's eastern capital Luoyang (where the officials in charge did not recognize Li Yuan's authorities) under attack by the rebel ruler Li Mi the Duke of Wei, Li Yuan sent Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin to Luoyang, ostensibly to aid the Sui forces at Luoyang but instead intending to test whether Luoyang might submit to him. The officials at Luoyang rebuffed his attempt at rapprochement, and Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin, not wanting to fight either them or Li Mi for control of Luoyang at this stage, withdrew. Li Yuan subsequently changed Li Shimin's title to Duke of Zhao.
In summer 618, when news arrived at Chang'an that Emperor Yang had been killed at Jiangdu in a coup led by the general Yuwen Huaji, Li Yuan had Emperor Gong yield the throne to him, establishing Tang dynasty as its Emperor Gaozu. He created Li Jiancheng crown prince but created Li Shimin the Prince of Qin, also making him Shangshu Ling (
During Emperor Gaozu's reign[edit]
Campaign to reunify the empire[edit]
The first thing that Li Shimin had to deal with was another incursion by Xue Ju, as Xue attacked Jing Prefecture (涇州, roughly modern Pingliang, Gansu) and Emperor Gaozu sent Li Shimin to resist Xue. Li Shimin established his defenses and refused to engage Xue to try to wear Xue Ju out, but at that time, he was afflicted with malaria, and he let his assistants Liu Wenjing and Yin Kaishan (
In spring 619, Liu Wuzhou launched a major offensive against Tang. He captured Taiyuan in summer 619, forcing Li Yuanji, who had been in charge there, to flee, and then continued his offensive south. Emperor Gaozu sent Pei Ji against him, but by winter 619, Liu had crushed Pei's forces and taken over nearly all of modern Shanxi. Emperor Gaozu, shocked at the development, considered abandoning the region altogether. Li Shimin opposed doing so and offered to lead the army against Liu. Emperor Gaozu agreed and commissioned him with an army. He crossed the Yellow River and approached Liu's major general Song Jingang (
In summer 620, Emperor Gaozu again commissioned Li Shimin against a major enemy—the former Sui general Wang Shichong, who had Sui's last emperor, Emperor Yang's grandson Yang Tong, yield the throne to him in 619, establishing a new state of Zheng as its emperor. When Li Shimin arrived at the Zheng capital Luoyang, Wang offered peace, but Li Shimin rebuffed him and put Luoyang under siege. Meanwhile, his subordinates took Zheng cities one by one. By winter 620, most of Zheng territory, other than Luoyang and Xiangyang, defended by Wang Shichong's nephew Wang Honglie (
By spring 621, Luoyang was in desperate situation, and Xia forces had not yet arrived, but Tang troops had also suffered serious casualties, as Luoyang's defenses, aided by powerful bows and catapults, were holding. Emperor Gaozu, hearing that Dou had decided to come to Wang's aid, ordered Li Shimin to withdraw, but Li Shimin sent his secretary Feng Deyi to Chang'an to explain to Emperor Gaozu that if he did withdraw, Wang would recover and again be a major threat in the future. Emperor Gaozu agreed and allowed Li Shimin to continue to siege Luoyang. When Xia forward troops arrived first, Li Shimin surprised and defeated them, and then sent Dou a letter suggesting that he withdraw. Dou would not do so, and, against the advice of his wife Empress Cao and secretary general Ling Jing (
The former Xia territory did not remain in Tang hands for long. In the winter of 621, the Xia general Liu Heita rose against Tang rule, claiming to be avenging Dou, whom Emperor Gaozu had executed against Li Shimin's wishes after he had been brought back to Chang'an. Liu was allied with Xu Yuanlang, a former agrarian rebel general who was nominally under Wang Shichong and who had submitted to Tang after Wang's defeat. Liu dealt successive defeats to Emperor Gaozu's cousin Li Shentong (
Struggle against Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji[edit]
By this point, Li Shimin and his older brother Li Jiancheng, who was created crown prince in 618, reportedly after Emperor Gaozu first offered the position to Li Shimin due to his contributions, were locked in an intense rivalry, as Li Shimin's accomplishments caused people to speculate that he would displace Li Jiancheng as crown prince, and Li Jiancheng, while an accomplished general himself, was overshadowed by his younger brother. The court became divided into a faction favoring the Crown Prince and a faction favoring the Prince of Qin. The rivalry was particularly causing problems within the capital, as the commands of the Crown Prince, the Prince of Qin, and the Prince of Qi Li Yuanji were said to have the same force as the emperor's edicts, and the officials had to carry conflicting orders out by acting on the ones that arrived first. Li Shimin's staff was full of talented men, but Li Jiancheng was supported by Li Yuanji, as well as Emperor Gaozu's concubines, who had better relationships with Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji than they did with Li Shimin.
Late in 622, when Liu Heita returned east after receiving aid from the Eastern Turks, defeating and killing Li Shimin's cousin Li Daoxuan (
For the next few years, the rivalry intensified, although during the meantime both Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin served as generals when the Eastern Göktürks made incursions. In 623, when the general Fu Gongshi rebelled at Danyang (
In 624, when Li Jiancheng was found to have, against regulations, tried to add soldiers to his guard corps, Emperor Gaozu was so angry that he put Li Jiancheng under arrest. In fear, Li Jiancheng's guard commander Yang Wen'gan (楊文
Later that year, Emperor Gaozu, troubled by repeated Göktürk incursions, seriously considered burning Chang'an to the ground and moving the capital to Fancheng, a suggestion that Li Jiancheng, Li Yuanji, and Pei Ji agreed with. Li Shimin opposed, however, and the plan was not carried out. Meanwhile, Li Shimin himself was sending his confidants to Luoyang to build up personal control of the army there. After an incident in which Li Shimin suffered a severe case of food poisoning after feasting at Li Jiancheng's palace—an event that both Emperor Gaozu and Li Shimin apparently interpreted as an assassination attempt—Emperor Gaozu considered sending Li Shimin to guard Luoyang to prevent further conflict, but Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji, after consulting each other, believed that this would only give Li Shimin an opportunity to build up his personal power there, and therefore opposed it. Emperor Gaozu therefore did not carry out the plan. Meanwhile, the rivalry continued. Traditional historical accounts also indicated that at one point, when Li Shimin visited Li Yuanji's mansion, Li Yuanji wanted to assassinate Li Shimin, but Li Jiancheng, who could not resolve to kill a brother, stopped the plot. There was yet another incident in which Li Jiancheng, knowing that a horse threw its rider easily, had Li Shimin ride it, causing Li Shimin to fall off from it several times.
By 626, Li Shimin was fearful that he would be killed by Li Jiancheng, and his staff members Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, and Zhangsun Wuji were repeatedly encouraging Li Shimin to attack Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji first—while Wei Zheng was encouraging Li Jiancheng to attack Li Shimin first. Li Jiancheng persuaded Emperor Gaozu to remove Fang and Du, as well as Li Shimin's trusted guard generals Yuchi Jingde and Cheng Zhijie, from Li Shimin's staff. Zhangsun Wuji, who remained on Li Shimin's staff, continued to try to persuade Li Shimin to attack first.
In summer 626, the Göktürks were making another attack, and under Li Jiancheng's suggestion, Emperor Gaozu, instead of sending Li Shimin to resist the Göktürks as he first was inclined, decided to send Li Yuanji instead. Li Yuanji was given command of much of the army previously under Li Shimin's control, further troubling Li Shimin, who believed that with the army in Li Yuanji's hands, he would be unable to resist an attack. Li Shimin had Yuchi summon Fang and Du back to his mansion secretly, and then on one night submitted an accusation to Emperor Gaozu that Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji were committing adultery with Emperor Gaozu's concubines. Emperor Gaozu, in response, issued summonses to Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji for the next morning, convening the senior officials Pei Ji, Xiao Yu, and Chen Shuda to examine Li Shimin's accusations. As Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji approached the central gate leading to Emperor Gaozu's palace, Xuanwu Gate (
As emperor[edit]
Early reign (626–633)[edit]
One of the first actions that Emperor Taizong carried out as emperor was releasing a number of ladies in waiting from the palace and returning them to their homes, so that they could be married. He made his wife Princess Zhangsun the empress, and their oldest son Li Chengqian the crown prince.
Emperor Taizong also immediately faced a crisis, as the Eastern Turkic leader Jiali Khan Ashina Duobi, along with his nephew the subordinate Tuli Khan Ashina Shibobi (
Late in 626, Emperor Taizong ranked the contributors to Tang rule and granted them titles and fiefs, naming among the first rank of contributors Zhangsun Wuji, Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, Yuchi Jingde, and Hou Junji. When Li Shentong, as his distant uncle, objected to being ranked under Fang and Du, Emperor Taizong personally explained how Fang and Du's strategies allowed him to be successful, and this managed to get the other objectors to quiet down, as Emperor Taizong was even willing to rank low such an honored individual as Li Shentong. Emperor Taizong also buried Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji with honors due imperial princes and had their staff members attend the funeral processions. Meanwhile, he appeared to begin to reshuffle government further—which he had already begun after being created crown prince—by dismissing his father's trusted advisors Xiao Yu and Chen Shuda, making his own trusted advisors chancellors. (Xiao, however, was soon restored to being chancellor, although his career during Emperor Taizong's reign would see repeated dismissals and repeated restorations.) However, he also began to greatly pay attention to the officials' submissions and their criticism of imperial governance, making changes where he saw needed. He also particularly began to trust Wei Zheng, accepting much advice from Wei as far as his personal conduct was concerned. He was also willing to demote his own trusted advisors, as he demoted Gao Shilian after finding that Gao had held back submissions from his deputy Wang Gui. Viewing Sui's Emperor Yang as a negative example, he frequently solicited criticism, rewarding those officials willing to offer them, particularly Wei and Wang Gui. His openness to opposing ideas was also evident in his attempt to reconcile traditional Taoist religion and Buddhism, as demonstrated in his Emperor's Preface to the Sacred Teachings (
Li Yi's Rebellion[edit]
Also in 627, the general Li Yi the Prince of Yan—a late-Sui warlord who later submitted to Tang, who associated with Li Jiancheng—fearing that Emperor Taizong would eventually take action against him, rebelled at Bin Prefecture (豳州, in modern Xianyang), but was quickly crushed by the official Yang Ji (楊岌) and killed in flight. Later that year, when Emperor Gaozu's cousin Li Youliang (
Also in 627, Emperor Taizong, seeing that there were too many prefectures and counties, consolidated and merged many of them, and further created another level of local political organization above prefectures—the circuit (
Campaign against the Eastern Turks[edit]
In 628, with Ashina Duobi and Ashina Shibobi having a falling out, Ashina Shibobi submitted to Emperor Taizong, as did the chieftains of Khitan tribes, who had previously submitted to the Eastern Turks. With their khaganate in turmoil, Ashina Duobi was no longer able to protect the last late-Sui rebel ruler who alone remained standing against Tang pressure—Liang Shidu the Emperor of Liang, and in summer 628, with the Tang generals Chai Shao and Xue Wanjun (薛萬
In late 629, believing the time ripe for a major attack on the Eastern Turks, Emperor Taizong commissioned the general Li Jing with overall command of a multi-pronged army, assisted by the generals Li Shiji, Li Daozong, Chai Shao, Xue Wanche (薛
The main opposing views were from the chancellors Wen Yanbo (who advocated leaving the Turks within China's borders to serve as a defense perimeter) and Wei (who advocated leaving them outside the borders). Emperor Taizong accepted Wen's suggestion and established a number of prefectures to accommodate the Turks, leaving them governed by their chieftains without creating a new khan to govern them.
In 631, Emperor Taizong established a feudal scheme, where the contributors to his reign were given, in addition to their current posts, additional posts as prefectural governors, to be passed on to their descendants. Soon, however, receiving much opposition to the plan, the strongest of which came from Zhangsun Wuji, Emperor Taizong cancelled the scheme. After the conquest of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, Emperor Taizong's officials repeatedly requested that he carry out sacrifices to heaven and earth at Mount Tai, and Emperor Taizong, while at times tempted by the proposal, was repeatedly dissuaded from doing so by Wei, who pointed out the expenses and the labors that would be imposed on the people as a result, and also that this would open China's borders to attack.
Middle reign (634–641)[edit]
In 634, Emperor Taizong sent 13 high level officials, including Li Jing and Xiao Yu, to examine the circuits to see whether the local officials were capable, to find out whether the people were suffering, to comfort the poor, and to select capable people to serve in civil service. (Li Jing initially recommended Wei Zheng, but Emperor Taizong declined sending Wei, stating that Wei needed to stay to point out his faults and that he could not afford to have Wei away even for a single day.)[citation needed]
Campaign against Tuyuhun[edit]
Around this time, Tang was having increasing conflicts with Tuyuhun, whose Busabo Khan Murong Fuyun, under instigation by his strategist the Prince of Tianzhu, had been repeatedly attacking Tang prefectures on the borders. At one point, Murong Fuyun sought to have a Tang princess marry his son the Prince of Zun, but the marriage negotiations broke down over Emperor Taizong's insistence that the Prince of Zun come to Chang'an for the wedding. In summer 634, Emperor Taizong had the generals Duan Zhixuan and Fan Xing (樊興) lead forces against Tuyuhun, but with Tuyuhun's forces highly mobile and avoiding direct confrontation, Duan, while not defeated, could not make major gains. Once Duan withdrew, Tuyuhun resumed hostilities. In winter 634, with the Tibetan king Songtsän Gampo making overtures to marry a Tang princess as well, Emperor Taizong sent the emissary Feng Dexia (馮德遐) to Tibet with an eye toward an alliance against Tuyuhun. In winter 634, he commissioned Li Jing, assisted by the other generals Hou Junji, Xue Wanjun, Xue Wanche, Qibi Heli, Li Daozong, Li Daliang, Li Daoyan (
Also in 635, Emperor Gaozu died, and Emperor Taizong, observing a mourning period, briefly had Li Chengqian serve as regent, and after he resumed his authorities less than two months later, he still authorized Li Chengqian to thereafter rule on minor matters.
In spring 636, Emperor Taizong commissioned his brothers and sons as commandants and changed their titles in accordance with the commands that they received, sending them to their posts—with the exception of his son Li Tai the Prince of Wei, who by this point was beginning to be highly favored by him. He further allowed Li Tai to engage literary men to serve as his assistants, as Li Tai favored literature. From this point on, Li Tai would be so favored that there began to be talks that Emperor Taizong might let him displace Li Chengqian, whose favors began to wane. In fall 636, Empress Zhangsun died. Emperor Taizong mourned her bitterly and personally wrote the text of her monument.
In summer 637, Emperor Taizong recreated the feudal scheme that he had considered and abandoned in 631, creating 35 hereditary prefect posts. (By 639, however, the system was again abandoned after much opposition.)
Treatment of Noble Clans[edit]
Sometime before 638, Emperor Taizong, disgusted with the traditional noble clans of Cui, Lu, Li, and Zheng and believing that they were abusing their highly honored names, commissioned Gao Shilian, Wei Ting, Linghu Defen, and Cen Wenben to compile a work later to be known as the Records of Clans (
Tibetan attack on Songzhou[edit]
In fall 638, Tibet's Songtsän Gampo, displeased that Emperor Taizong had declined to give him a Tang princess in marriage and believing that Murong Nuohebo had persuaded Emperor Taizong to decline the marriage proposal, launched a major attack with forces of 200,000 on Tuyuhun and then on several Tang prefectures, putting Song Prefecture (
Campaign against Western Turks[edit]
Taizong began a series of campaigns against the Western Turks (Xitujue) and their allies, the oasis states of the Tarim Basin, around 640.[22] These hostilities between the Western Turks and Tang would continue until the defeat and conquest of the Western Turks in 657 under Taizong's successor, Gaozong.[23] The kingdoms of Shule and Khotan surrendered to the Chinese in 632, as did the kingdom of Yarkand in 635.[10] Qu Wentai (麴文
In winter 640, Songsän Gampo sent his prime minister Gar Tongtsen Yülsung ("Lu Dongzan" (
Late reign (642–649)[edit]
By 642, it was clear that Li Tai had ambitions on replacing his brother Li Chengqian, and the governmental officials began to be divided into pro-Li Chengqian and pro-Li Tai factions. After urging by Wei Zheng and Chu Suiliang to take actions that would clarify that Li Chengqian's position was secure, Emperor Taizong attempted to do so by making repeated statements to that effect, but his continued favoring of Li Tai led to continued speculation among officials.
Also by 642, Xueyantuo had posed a sufficiently serious threat (albeit still formally submissive) that Emperor Taizong saw two alternatives—destroying it by force or forming into a heqin relationship by marrying one of his daughters to Yinan. This particularly became an issue after the Tang general Qibi Heli (
In spring 643, Wei died, and Emperor Taizong mourned him bitterly, authoring Wei's monument himself and, prior to Wei's death, promising to give his daughter Princess Hengshan in marriage to Wei's son Wei Shuyu (
Contacts with the Byzantine Empire[edit]
The Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang mention several embassies made by Fu lin (
The expansion of China's power into Central Asia under Emperor Taizong seems to have been noticed in the West. Theophylact Simocatta, a Byzantine Greek historian during the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), wrote that Taugast (or Taugas; Old Turkic: Tabghach, from Tuoba, the Xianbei clan of Northern Wei),[32] was a great eastern empire in the Far East that ruled over Turkic people, with a capital city roughly 1,500 miles northeast from India that he called Khubdan (from the Turkic word Khumdan, meaning, Chang'an), where idolatry was practiced but the people were wise and lived by just laws.[33] He depicted the Chinese empire as being divided by a great river (i.e. the Yangzi) that served as the boundary between two rival states at war, yet during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Maurice (582–602 AD) the northerners wearing "black coats" conquered the "red coats" of the south (black being a distinctive color worn by the people of Shaanxi, location of the Sui capital Sui Chang'an, according to the 16th-century Persian traveler Hajji Mahomed, or Chaggi Memet).[34] This account may correspond to the conquest of the Chen dynasty and reunification of China by Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581–604).[34] Simocatta names their ruler as Taisson, which he claimed meant Son of God, either correlating to the Chinese Tianzi (i.e. Son of Heaven) or even the name of the contemporary ruler Emperor Taizong.[35]
Succession dispute[edit]
Also in 643, Emperor Taizong would see major turmoil among his own closest family. In spring 643, his son Li You (
The death of Li You drew out news of another plot. Li Chengqian, who had been fearful that Emperor Taizong would eventually remove him and replace him with Li Tai, had begun to conspire with Hou Junji, Li Yuanchang (
Taizong's eldest son Li Chengqian chose to speak Turkic, dress in Turkic clothes and even set up a tent in his residence in imitation of a Turkic khan. Taizong removed him from the position of heir apparent and chose as his successor Li Zhi, who embraced Han Chinese cultural heritage.[36]
After Li Chengqian was deposed, Emperor Taizong briefly promised Li Tai that he would be made crown prince. However, as the investigations continued, Emperor Taizong came to the belief that Li Chengqian's downfall was driven by Li Tai's machinations, and therefore resolved to depose Li Tai as well. At Zhangsun's suggestion, Emperor Taizong created a younger son, Li Zhi the Prince of Jin (who, like Li Chengqian and Li Tai, were born of Empress Zhangsun), crown prince, who was considered kinder and gentler, while exiling Li Chengqian and Li Tai. However, starting later that year, Emperor Taizong began to doubt whether Li Zhi's personality was sufficiently strong to serve as emperor, and he toyed with the idea of making another son, Li Ke the Prince of Wu, a son of his concubine Consort Yang (Emperor Yang of Sui's daughter), crown prince, but did not do so due to strong opposition by Zhangsun Wuji.
Meanwhile, coming to the belief that he made an ill-advised promise to Yinan to give him Princess Xinxing in marriage, Emperor Taizong demanded a large amount of bride price – 50,000 horses, 10,000 cows and camels, and 100,000 sheep—a price that Yinan agreed to, but could not immediately collect and deliver. Emperor Taizong used it as an excuse to cancel the marriage agreement. Meanwhile, as Wei Zheng had, prior to his death, recommended Hou Junji and Li Chengqian's staff member Du Zhenglun as chancellors, Emperor Taizong came to suspect that Wei was part of the plot as well. He destroyed the monument he had authored for Wei and cancelled the betrothal between Wei Shuyu and Princess Hengshan.
Campaign against the Karasahr[edit]
In 644, with Yanqi's king Long Tuqizhi (
Goguryeo-Tang War[edit]
Also in 644, with Goguryeo attacking Silla and Silla requesting aid, Emperor Taizong decided to prepare for a campaign to conquer Goguryeo. He arrested the emissaries that Yeon sent to the Tang court, accusing them of disloyalty to King Yeongnyu. By winter 644, the mobilization was in full force. (Apparently because of Tang's preparation to attack Goguryeo, however, the reconstituted Eastern Turkic people, fearing an attack from Xueyantuo at a time that Tang would be ill-equipped to assist, panicked and abandoned their khan Li Simo, fleeing into Tang territory. Emperor Taizong reabsorbed the Eastern Turks into Tang, while making Li Simo a general in his army.)
In spring 645, Emperor Taizong departed from Luoyang and led the troops northeast, behind a vanguard of 60,000 commanded by Li Shiji and Li Daozong. At the same time, Zhang Liang led the other 40,000 from sea. By summer 645, Tang forces had captured Yodong Fortress (
However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, after suffering some casualties, with winter fast approaching and his food supplies running out, Emperor Taizong withdrew. He much regretted launching the campaign and made the comment, "If Wei Zheng were still alive, he would never have let me launch this campaign." He reerected the monument he authored for Wei and summoned Wei's wife and children to meet him, treating them well.
Campaign against Xueyantuo and conquest of the Kucha[edit]
Meanwhile, in the aftermaths of the Goguryeo campaign, Xueyantuo's Duomi Khan Bazhuo (son of Yinan, who had died earlier in 645) launched attacks against Tang's border prefectures, with largely inconclusive results. In spring 646, the Tang generals Qiao Shiwang (
After the victory over Xueyantuo, Emperor Taizong again turned his attention toward to Goguryeo, cutting off relations once more and considering another campaign. Under suggestions by some of his officials, he decided to launch harassment campaigns against Goguryeo's northern region on a yearly basis, to weaken Goguryeo gradually. The first of these campaigns was launched in spring 647, with Li Shiji and Niu Jinda in command, and would reoccur. All this was in preparation of another campaign in 649 with forces totaling 300,000, but Taizong died before this campaign and the campaign was stalled into Gaozong's reign.
In 648, Emperor Taizong launched another campaign, commanded by Ashina She'er, aimed at Qiuzi, but first attacking Yanqi and killing Long Xuepoanazhi and replacing him with his cousin Long Xiannazhun (
Death[edit]
By summer of 649, Emperor Taizong was seriously ill—with some believing that his illness was caused by the medicine he was administered by Buddhists[40] or his taking of pills given to him by alchemists. Believing Li Shiji to be capable but fearing that he would not be submissive to Li Zhi, he demoted Li Shiji out of the capital to be the commandant at remote Die Prefecture (
Religious views[edit]
Emperor Taizong stated he believed in the Tao, although his vision of it was a greatly syncretized version.[41] He believed in Jesus as a Taoist hero and Confucian sage, and incorporated elements of Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Islam, Syriac Christianity (as well as the Church of the East, which was a major institution in that branch of Christianity), and other Middle Eastern religions in his personal religion that was enforced by laws that demanded his subjects practice tolerance.[41]
However, he did believe Buddhism was "superior to Chinese religions" near the end of his life.[42]
Monuments[edit]
After consolidating the Tang Empire, Emperor Taizong ordered six large stone panels, known as Zhaoling Liujun (
Since I engaged in military campaigns, those war chargers which carried me rushing on the enemy and breaking the line, and which rescued me from perils, their true images should be portrayed on stone and be placed left and right of my tomb to demonstrate the righteousness of "curtain and cover."[43]
Emperor Taizong further composed laudatory poems for each of the six horses depicted in the stone reliefs. Constructed between 636 and 649 CE, the stone reliefs "exemplify the beauty of early Tang sculpture; the images are realistic yet powerful, created with simplicity and matured craftsmanship."[44]
After Taizong's death, the monuments were situated along the east and west sides of the "spirit path" at the North Gate of the tomb complex named Zhaoling or Zhao Mausoleum.[45] The six stone horse reliefs remained at the Mausoleum until the early twentieth century, when four were removed to the Beilin Museum in Xi'an, China and two were sold and subsequently donated to the Penn Museum in Philadelphia in 1921.[46]
Era name[edit]
- Zhenguan (traditional Chinese:
貞 觀 ; simplified Chinese: 贞观; pinyin: zhēnguàn) 627–649
Chancellors during reign[edit]
Name | In office | Notes |
---|---|---|
Xiao Yu | (626, 627, 630, 643–646) | |
Chen Shuda | (626) | |
Feng Deyi | (626–627) | |
Yuwen Shiji | (626–627) | |
Gao Shilian | (626–627, 638–647) | |
Fang Xuanling | (626–643, 643–648) | |
Zhangsun Wuji | (627–628, 645–649) | |
Du Yan | (627–628) | |
Du Ruhui | (628–629) | |
Li Jing | (628–634) | |
Wang Gui | (628–633) | |
Wei Zheng | (629–642) | |
Wen Yanbo | (630–637) | |
Dai Zhou | (630–633) | |
Hou Junji | (630–632, 632–643) | |
Yang Shidao | (636–643, 645) | |
Liu Ji | (639–645) | |
Cen Wenben | (642–645) | |
Li Shiji | (643–649) | |
Zhang Liang | (643–646) | |
Ma Zhou | (644–648) | |
Chu Suiliang | (644–647, 648–649) | |
Xu Jingzong | (645) | [e] |
Gao Jifu | (645) | [e] |
Zhang Xingcheng | (645) | [e] |
Cui Renshi | (648) |
Family[edit]
Consorts and Issue:
- Empress Wende, of the Zhangsun clan of Henan (
文德 皇后 河南 長 孫 氏 /长孙氏 ; 601–636)- Li Chengqian, Prince Min of Hengshan (
恆 山 愍王李 承 乾 /恒 山 愍王李 承 亁; 618–645), first son - Li Tai, Prince Gong of Pu (濮恭
王 李 泰 ; 620–653), fourth son - Princess Changle (
長樂 公主 /长乐公主 ; 621–643), personal name Lizhi (麗質 /丽质), fifth daughter- Married Zhangsun Chong of Henan (
河南 長 孫 衝/长孙冲), a son of Zhangsun Wuji, in 633, and had issue (one son)
- Married Zhangsun Chong of Henan (
- Li Zhi, Gaozong (
高 宗 李 治 ; 628–683), ninth son - Princess Chengyang (
城陽 公主 /城 阳公主 ; d. 671), sixteenth daughter- Married Du He of Jingzhao, Duke Xiangyang (
京 兆 杜 荷 ; 616–643), a son of Du Ruhui - Married Xue Guan of Hedong (
河東 薛瓘/河 东 薛瓘) in 643, and had issue (two sons)
- Married Du He of Jingzhao, Duke Xiangyang (
- Princess Jinyang (
晉 陽 公主 /晋 阳公主 ; 633–644), personal name Mingda (明 达) - Princess Xincheng (
新城 公主 ; 634–663), twenty-first daughter- Married Zhangsun Quan of Henan (
河南 長 孫 詮 /长孙诠; 636–659) in 649 - Married Wei Zhengju of Jingzhao (
京 兆 韋正矩 /韦正矩 ; d. 663) in 660
- Married Zhangsun Quan of Henan (
- Li Chengqian, Prince Min of Hengshan (
- Noble Consort, of the Wei clan of Jingzhao (
貴 妃 京 兆 韋氏/贵妃京 兆 韦氏; 597–665), personal name Gui (珪)- Princess Linchuan (
臨川 公主 /临川公主 ; 624–682), personal name Mengjiang (孟 姜 ), tenth daughter- Married Zhou Daowu of Runan, Duke Qiao (
汝 南 周 道 務 /周 道 务), and had issue (three sons, two daughters)
- Married Zhou Daowu of Runan, Duke Qiao (
- Li Shen, Prince of Ji (
紀 王 李 慎 /纪王李 慎 ; d. 689), tenth son
- Princess Linchuan (
- Noble Consort, of the Yang clan (
貴 妃 楊氏/贵妃 杨氏)- Li Fu, Prince of Zhao (
趙 王 李 福 /赵王李 福 ; 634–670), 13th son
- Li Fu, Prince of Zhao (
- Consort, of the Yang clan (
妃 楊氏/杨氏)- Li Ke, Prince of Wu (
吳 王 李 恪 ; 619–653), third son - Li Yin, Prince Dao of Shu (
蜀 悼王李 愔; d. 667), sixth son
- Li Ke, Prince of Wu (
- Consort, of the Yin clan (
妃 陰 氏 /阴氏)- Li You, Prince of Qi (
齊 王 李 佑 /齐王李 佑 ; c.621–643), fifth son
- Li You, Prince of Qi (
- Virtuous Consort, of the Yan clan (
德 妃 燕 氏 ; 609–671)- Li Zhen, Prince Jing of Yue (
越 敬 王 李 貞 /李 贞; 627–688), eighth son - Li Xiao, Prince Shang of Jiang (
江 殤王李 囂/江 殇王李 嚣; d. 632), 11th son
- Li Zhen, Prince Jing of Yue (
- Able Consort, of the Zheng clan (
賢 妃 郑氏/贤妃 郑氏) - Able Consort, of the Xu clan (
賢 妃 徐 氏 /贤妃徐 氏 ; 627–650), personal name Hui (惠 ) - Lady of Bright Countenance, of the Wei clan (
昭 容 韋氏/韦氏), personal name Nizi (尼子 ) - Imperial Concubine, of a certain clan (
下 嫔某氏 )- Princess Yuzhang (
豫 章 公主 ), sixth daughter- Married Tang Yishi (
唐 義 識/唐 义识), a son of Tang Jian, in 637, and had issue (one son)
- Married Tang Yishi (
- Princess Yuzhang (
- Lady of Beauty, of the Xiao clan (
美人 萧氏) - Lady of Talent, of the Wu clan; 624–705, personal name Mei (
媚 ), known commonly as Wu Zetian - Lady of Talent, of the Cui clan of Qinghe (
才人 清河 崔 氏 ) - Lady of Talent, of the Xiao clan (
才人 萧氏) - Princess Consort, of the Yang clan of Hongnong (
王妃 弘 農 楊氏/弘 农杨氏 )[48]- Li Ming, Prince Gong of Cao (曹恭
王 李 明 ; d. 682), 14th son
- Li Ming, Prince Gong of Cao (曹恭
- Lady, of the Wang clan (
王 氏 )- Li Yun, Prince of Jiang (蔣王
李 惲/蒋王李 恽; d. 674), seventh son
- Li Yun, Prince of Jiang (蔣王
- Lady, of the Gao clan (
高 氏 ) - Unknown
- Li Kuan, Prince Chu (
楚 王 李 寬 /李 宽; b. 619), second son - Li Jian, Prince Dai (
代 王 李 簡/李 简; 631), 12th son - Princess Xiangcheng (
襄 城 公主 ; d. 651), first daughter- Married Xiao Rui of Lanling, Duke Song (
蘭 陵 蕭 銳 /兰陵 箫锐), a son of Xiao Yu
- Married Xiao Rui of Lanling, Duke Song (
- Princess Ru'nan (
汝 南 公主 ; d. 636), third daughter - Princess Nanping (
南平 公主 ; d. 650), third daughter- Married Wang Jingzhi, Baron Nancheng (
王 敬 直 ), the youngest son of Wang Gui, in 637 - Married Liu Xuanyi of Henan, Duke Yu (
河南 劉 玄 意 /刘玄意 ) in 643
- Married Wang Jingzhi, Baron Nancheng (
- Princess Sui'an (
遂 安 公主 ; d. 651), fourth daughter- Married Dou Kui of Henan, Baron Xindou (
河南 竇逵/窦逵) - Married Wang Dali (
王 大禮 /王 大礼 ; 613–669), and had issue (one son)
- Married Dou Kui of Henan, Baron Xindou (
- Princess Baling (
巴 陵 公主 ; d. 653), seventh daughter- Married Chai Lingwu, Duke Xiangyang (
柴 令 武 ; d. 653), the second son of Chai Shao
- Married Chai Lingwu, Duke Xiangyang (
- Princess Pu'an (
普 安 公主 ), eighth daughter- Married Shi Renbiao, Duke Dou (
史 仁 表 )
- Married Shi Renbiao, Duke Dou (
- Princess Dongyang (
東陽 公主 /东阳公主 ; d. 701), ninth daughter- Married Gao Lüxing of Bohai, Duke Shen (渤海
高 履行 ), the first son of Gao Shilian
- Married Gao Lüxing of Bohai, Duke Shen (渤海
- Princess Qinghe (
清河 公主 ; 624–664), personal name Jing (敬 ), 11th daughter- Married Cheng Huailiang, Duke Dong'a (
程 懷 亮 /程 怀亮), the second son of Cheng Zhijie, in 633
- Married Cheng Huailiang, Duke Dong'a (
- Princess Lanling (
蘭 陵 公主 /兰陵公主 ; 628–659), personal name Shu (淑 ), 19th daughter- Married Dou Huaizhe of Henan (
河南 竇懷悊/窦怀哲 ) in 636, and had issue (one daughter)
- Married Dou Huaizhe of Henan (
- Princess Jin'an (
晉 安 公主 /晋 安 公主 ), 13th daughter- Married Wei Si'an of Jingzhao (
京 兆 韋思安 /韦思安 ) - Married Yang Renlu of Hongnong (
弘 農 楊仁輅/弘 农 杨仁辂)
- Married Wei Si'an of Jingzhao (
- Princess Ankang (
安康 公主 ), 14th daughter- Married Dugu Mou of Henan (
河南 獨 孤 謀 /独 孤 谋) in 643
- Married Dugu Mou of Henan (
- Princess Xinxing (
新興 公主 /新 兴公主 ), 15th daughter- Married Zhangsun Xi of Henan (
河南 長 孫 曦/长孙曦)
- Married Zhangsun Xi of Henan (
- Princess Gaoyang (
高 陽 公主 /高 阳公主 ; d. 653)- Married Fang Yi'ai of Qinghe (
清河 房 遺愛 /房 遗爱; d. 653), a son of Fang Xuanling, in 648
- Married Fang Yi'ai of Qinghe (
- Princess Jinshan (
金山 公主 ), 18th daughter - Princess Changshan (
常山 公主 ), 20th daughter
- Li Kuan, Prince Chu (
Ancestry[edit]
Li Tianxi | |||||||||||||||||||
Li Hu | |||||||||||||||||||
Lady Jia | |||||||||||||||||||
Li Bing (d. 573) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Jinglie | |||||||||||||||||||
Emperor Gaozu of Tang (566–635) | |||||||||||||||||||
Dugu Kuzhe | |||||||||||||||||||
Dugu Xin (503–557) | |||||||||||||||||||
Lady Feilian | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Yuanzhen | |||||||||||||||||||
Emperor Taizong of Tang (598–649) | |||||||||||||||||||
Dou Lüe | |||||||||||||||||||
Dou Yue | |||||||||||||||||||
Dou Yi (519–583) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Taimu (569–613) | |||||||||||||||||||
Yuwen Gong (470–526) | |||||||||||||||||||
Yuwen Tai (507–556) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Mingde | |||||||||||||||||||
Princess Xiangyang | |||||||||||||||||||
Literary and other cultural references[edit]
- Emperor Taizong was the subject of a 64-chapter (in eight volumes) The Novel of the Prince of Qin of the Great Tang (
大 唐 秦 王 詞 話 Datang Qin Wang Cihua) by Zhu Shenglin of the Ming dynasty. The novel is also known as The Biography of the Prince of Qin of the Tang Dynasty (唐 秦 王 本 傳 ), Romance of Tang (唐 傳 演義 ), and Romance of the Prince of Qin (秦 王 演義 ). - Journey to the West details a fictional account of the origin of the Chinese door gods. Emperor Taizong asked his generals Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong to stand guard outside his bedroom to protect him from a vengeful spirit.
Television/Cinema[edit]
- Hong Kong's TVB produced a television series about Li Shimin's adventure based on The Novel of the Prince of Qin of the Great Tang (
大 唐 秦 王 詞 話 ). - The Foundation, a 1983 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB. It featured a young Li Shimin prominently as one of its three leading characters.
- Portrayed by Sean Lau in the 1987 TVB TV series The Grand Canal.
- Portrayed by Wilson Lam in 1993 Taiwan's TTV 54 episodes TV series Tang Taizong, Li Shimin.
- Portrayed by Peter Ho in the 2004 TV series The Prince of Qin, Li Shimin.
- Portrayed by Shen Xiaohai in the 2006 TV series Initiating Prosperity.
- Portrayed by Tang Guoqiang in the CCTV-1 TV series Carol of Zhenguan.
- Portrayed by Ma Yue in the 2006 BTV TV series The Rise of the Tang Empire.
- Portrayed by Seo In-seok and Lee Joo-hyeon in 2006–2007 SBS TV series Yeon Gaesomun.
- Portrayed by Song Yong-tae in the 2006–2007 KBS TV series Dae Jo Yeong.
- Portrayed by Yu Shaoqun in the 2012 Hunan TV TV series Heroes of Sui and Tang Dynasties.
- Portrayed by Yoon Seung-won in the 2012–2013 KBS1 TV series Dream of the Emperor.
- Portrayed by Du Chun in the 2013 Dragon TV TV series Heroes in Sui and Tang Dynasties.
- Portrayed by Zhang Fengyi in the 2014 Hunan Television TV series The Empress of China.
- Portrayed by Zheng Guo Lin in the 2014 TV series Heroes of Sui and Tang Dynasties 3 & 4.
- Portrayed by Winston Chao in the 2016 movie Xuanzang.
- Portrayed by Park Sung-woong in the 2018 Korean film The Great Battle.
- Portrayed by Geng Le in the 2021 Chinese TV series The Long Ballad
長歌 行 . - Portrayed by Qin Junjie in the upcoming CCTV TV series Peace in Palace, Peace in Chang'An.
- Portrayed by Ma Yue in the TV series Ode to Daughter of Great Tang.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ Volume 191 of Zizhi Tongjian recorded that Taizong assumed the throne on the jiazi day of the 8th month of the 9th year of the Wude era of Tang Gaozu's reign. This date corresponds to 4 Sep 626 on the Gregorian calendar. [(
武德 九 年 八 月 )甲子 ,太 宗 即 皇帝 位 于东宫显德 殿 ...] - ^ Directory of historical figures. Pasadena: Salem Press. 2000. p. 613. ISBN 978-0-89356-334-9.
- ^ Picken, Laurence E.R.; Nickson, Noël J., eds. (2007). Music from the Tang Court. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-521-62100-7.
- ^ Sen, Tansen (2003). Buddhism, diplomacy, and trade. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8248-2593-5.
- ^ McNair, Amy (2007). Donors of Longmen: Faith, politics and patronage in medieval Chinese Buddhist sculpture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-8248-2994-0.
- ^ New Book of Tang, vol. 13.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 282.
- ^ "万方数据知识服务平台". d.wanfangdata.com.cn. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-3381.2019.08.062. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, Scroll 249.
- ^ a b Wechsler, Howard J.; Twitchett, Dennis C. (1979). Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John K. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–227. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- ^ CHofC, vol. 3, p. 189.
- ^ Bo Yang, Outlines of the History of Chinese, vol. 2, pp. 495–499.
- ^ Jack W. Chen, The Poetics of Sovereignty: On Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, p. 14
- ^ Victor Cunrui Xiong (2009), Historical Dictionary of Medieval China, Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras, No. 19. Edited by John Woronoff. Lanham, Toronto, Plymouth: The Scarecrow Press, p. 26, ISBN 0-8108-6053-8.
- ^ Chinese Strategists – Beyond Sun Zi's Art of War. Marshall Cavendish Editions. 2007. p. 68. ISBN 978-9812613714.
- ^ Jülch, Thomas (2016). The Middle Kingdom and the Dharma Wheel – Aspects of the Relationship Between the Buddhist Samgha and the State in Chinese History. Brill. p. 121. ISBN 978-9004322585.
- ^ Ooi Kee Beng (2016). Eurasian Core and Its Edges. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 60. ISBN 978-9814620970.
- ^ Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006). China – A New History (2nd Enlarged ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0674018280.
- ^ Richey, Jeffrey L. (2008). Teaching Confucianism. Oxford University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-19-531160-0.
- ^ Xiong (2006), pp. 63–64.
- ^ Poon, Vincent (10 February 2017). "The Emperor's Preface to the Sacred Teachings". Vincent's Calligraphy. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
- ^ Patricia Buckley Ebrey (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-521-12433-1.
- ^ Jonathan Karem Skaff (2009). Nicola Di Cosmo (ed.). Military Culture in Imperial China. Harvard University Press. pp. 183–185. ISBN 978-0-674-03109-8.
- ^ See, e.g., Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 196.
- ^ Jenkins, Peter (2008). The Lost History of Christianity: the Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia – and How It Died. New York: Harper Collins. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-06-147280-0.
- ^ Adshead (1995), pp. 104–106.
- ^ a b Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Arkenberg, Jerome S. (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Ball (2016), pp. 152–153, see endnote 114.
- ^ Yule (1915), pp. 48–49.
- ^ Yule (1915), pp. 54–55.
- ^ Schafer (1985), pp. 10, 25–26.
- ^ Luttwak (2009), p. 168.
- ^ Yule (1915), pp 29–31; footnote No. 3 on p. 31.
- ^ a b Yule (1915), p. 30; footnote No. 2 on p. 30.
- ^ Yule (1915), p. 29; footnote No. 4 on p. 29.
- ^ The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. 2010. p. 273.
- ^ Liu
劉 , Xu 昫 (945).舊 唐 書 [Old Book of Tang]. Vol. 3. Emperor Taizong.According to the Old book of Tang, the number of soldiers in Battle of Zhubi (
駐 蹕之戰 ) was different, with 40000 Tang soldiers against over 100000 Goguryeo troops allied with Mohe (靺鞨) tribes. - ^ Kenneth Scott Latourette (1964). The Chinese, Their History and Culture, Vols. 1–2 (4th ed., reprint ed.). Macmillan. p. 144. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
- ^ Drompp 2005, p. 126.
- ^ Chua, Amy (2007). Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall (1st ed.). New York: Doubleday. pp. 70, 71. ISBN 978-0-385-51284-8. OCLC 123079516.
- ^ a b Chua, Amy (2007). Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall (1st ed.). New York: Doubleday. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-385-51284-8. OCLC 123079516.
- ^ Chua, Amy (2007). Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall (1st ed.). New York: Doubleday. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-385-51284-8. OCLC 123079516.
- ^ Wang, Qinruo (1960).
冊 府 元 龜 [Premier tortoise in the storehouse of books]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. - ^ Xiuquin Zhou, http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp187_taizong_emperor.pdf "Zhaoling:The Mausoleum of Emperor Tang Taizong" 'Sino-Platonic Papers', No. 187, April 2009, p. 140.
- ^ Xiuquin Zhou, http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp187_taizong_emperor.pdf "Zhaoling:The Mausoleum of Emperor Tang Taizong" 'Sino-Platonic Papers', No. 187, April 2009
- ^ Bishop, Charles W. "Horses of T'ang T'ai Tsung.", 'The Museum Journal' Volume IX (Nos. 3–4) : Page/Fig./Plate: 265–272, figs. 75, 76, 1918
- ^ vol. 61.
- ^ She was the wife of Emperor Taizong's full brother, Li Yuanji
- ^ Given in final version as of 754.
- ^ [ⓘ]
- ^ His status as co-founder on par with Gaozu appeared certain by the time the Southern Tang, which claimed inheritance of Tang heritage, was established, as its founding emperor Emperor Liezu (Li Bian) recognized that status by treating Emperors Gaozu and Taizong, as well as his adoptive father Xu Wen, all as founders of his state.[7]
- ^ "...territories within his empire. He took the title "Heavenly Khan," thus designating himself as their ruler. A little later the Western Turks, although then at the height of their power, were badly defeated, and the Uighurs, a Turkish tribe, were detached from them and became sturdy supporters of the T'ang in the Gobi. The Khitan, Mongols in Eastern Mongolia and Southern Manchuria, made their submission (630). In the Tarim basin..."[38]
- ^ a b c Xu Jingzong, Gao Jifu, and Zhang Xingcheng were referred to as de facto chancellors by the New Book of Tang,[47] but this appeared to be a temporary measure during the Goguryeo campaign with Emperor Taizong out of Tang territory and Li Zhi in charge temporarily. Xu, Gao, Zhang (each of whom would be later made chancellor) were not again referred to as chancellors until they were made chancellors after Emperor Taizong's death, even though they were not explicitly removed.
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- Luttwak, Edward N. (2009), The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
- Millward, James (2009), Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang, Columbia University Press
- Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, vol. V:7: 'The Gunpowder Epic', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-30358-3
- Rong, Xinjiang (2013), Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang, Brill
- Schafer, Edward H. (1985), The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics, University of California Press
- Shaban, M. A. (1979), The ʿAbbāsid Revolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29534-3
- Sima, Guang (2015),
柏 楊版資 治 通 鑑 54皇后 失 蹤, Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī, ISBN 978-957-32-0876-1 - Skaff, Jonathan Karam (2012), Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580–800 (Oxford Studies in Early Empires), Oxford University Press
- Twitchett, Denis C. (1979), The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 3, Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Cambridge University Press
- Wang, Zhenping (2013), Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press
- Wilkinson, Endymion (2015). Chinese History: A New Manual (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center distributed by Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674088467.
- Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2000), Sui-Tang Chang'an: A Study in the Urban History of Late Medieval China (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies), U of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies, ISBN 0892641371
- Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2006), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy, Albany: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791482681.
- Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009), Historical Dictionary of Medieval China, United States: Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN 978-0810860537
- Xu, Elina-Qian (2005), Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, Institute for Asian and African Studies 7
- Xue, Zongzheng (1992), Turkic peoples,
中国 社会 科学 出版 社 - Yuan, Shu (2001),
柏 楊版通 鑑 記事 本末 28第 二 次 宦官 時代 , Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī, ISBN 957-32-4273-7 - Yule, Henry (1915), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route, Hakluyt Society
Further reading[edit]
- Old Book of Tang, vols. 2, 3.
- New Book of Tang, vol. 2.
- Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199.
- Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Arkenberg, Jerome S. (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
- Luttwak, Edward N. (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5.
- Schafer, Edward H. (1985) [1963], The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics (1st paperback ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
- Twitchett, Dennis, ed. (1979). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9. See especially : Ch. 4, T'ai-tsung (626–49) the Consolidator. pp. 150–241.
- Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. London: Hakluyt Society. Accessed 21 September 2016.
External links[edit]
- 598 births
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