Egaku

Egaku
Egaku
恵めぐみ萼がく
	Modern drawing of Egaku (early Heian period - early 9th century CE)
Personal
Born	unknown but before 822 ; Japan
Died	unknown but after 864 CE ; Japan
Religion	Buddhism
Flourished	9th Century CE
School	Zen, Tendai
Occupation	Buddhist monk, scholar
Senior posting
Teacher	Saichō, Yanguan Qi’an
	Disciples Jinsai (仁斎じんさい), Junshō (順じゅん昌あきら);
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	慧とし鍔つば
Simplified Chinese	慧とし锷
Hanyu Pinyin
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	Huì'è
Wade–Giles	Hui4 o4
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese	Huệ Ngạc or Tuệ Ngạc
Korean name
Hangul	혜악
Hanja	慧とし鍔つば
Revised Romanization
Transcriptions
Revised Romanization	Hyeak
Japanese name
Hiragana	えがく

Egaku or Hui'E ^{[note 4]} was a well-connected 9th century Japanese scholar-monk ^[5]^: 46^{[note 5]} who made frequent trips to Tang China for pilgrimage and bringing back Buddhist teachings to Japan. Egaku had a huge impact on the religious and cultural history of China and Japan.^[6]^: 1^{[note 6]} In Japan, he is famous for bringing the first Rinzai Zen monk Gikū^[2]^: 7605^{[note 7]} and the works of the Chinese poet Bai Juyi to Japan.^[5]^: 47–49 In China, he is renowned for his role in establishing a developed pilgrimage site in Putuoshan, one of the four major Buddhist pilgrimage sites in China.^[7]^: 14^{[note 8]} ^[4]^{[note 9]}

Life

Unlike his monastic contemporaries Saichō, Kūkai and Ennin, Egaku did not leave any travel diaries.^[8]^: 810^{[note 10]} The information known about him came from numerous Chinese and Japanese sources, and therefore, there are still many unclear points about him,^[9]^[10]^: 45 ^[11]^: 140 such as the dates and specific location of his birth and death. ^{[note 1]} ^[3] However, he was a disciple of Saichō and possibly was an acquaintance of Kūkai.^[1]^[5]^: 49

Legacy in Japan

Egaku did not travel to Tang China as part of an official mission from Japan in contrast to some of his monastic contemporaries. However, his travel was on the personal behest of the Empress Dowager Tachibana Kachiko, a devout Buddhist with religious and literary renown,^[12]^{: 348–356}^{[note 11]} who was curious about Zen Buddhism after talking to Kūkai. Egaku after that went on several trips to Tang China, most of them on behalf of the Empress Dowager.^[13]^: 216

In 841 CE, Egaku went to Tang China on a pilgrimage to Mount Wutai, the bodhimaņḍa of Manjuśri Bodhisattva. From there, he traveled to Hangzhou where he visited and offered gifts from the Empress Dowager to Yanguan Qi'an,^[4] a renowned 9th generation Chan Buddhist master descended from Mazu Daoyi.^[2]^: 7472^{[note 12]} Egaku then returned to Japan.

In 844 CE, Egaku went again to Tang China. He visited and made religious offerings at Mount Wutai and Linchi Monastery;^[6]^: 2 ^{[note 13]} the Empress Dowager personally made embroidered monastic robes and religious banners for this purpose.^[14]^: 269 ^[15]^{: 109–112}^{[note 14]} On this trip, Egaku witnessed and personally experienced the effect of Emperor Wuzong's Huichang persecution, which delayed his return to Japan.^[5]^: 48^{[note 15]} With the ascension of Emperor Xuanzong in 846 CE, the abuse ended, and Egaku returned with Yanguan Qi'an's chief disciple Gikū who became the first Zen master in Japan.^[2]^: 7010^{[note 16]}

Aristocratic Heian society enthusiastically received Gikū's arrival in Japan as he was the first Zen monk from China who exclusively taught Zen Buddhism in Japan. ^{[note 17]} ^[11]^: 130^{[note 18]} Tachibana Kachiko first housed him in the western wing of Tō-ji Temple; then moved him to Danrin Temple once it became completed.^[14]^: 269^{[note 19]} Gikū taught Zen Buddhism for several years there and then returned to Tang China.^[11]^{: 132–133}^{[note 20]}^[16]^: 109^{[note 21]}^{[note 22]}

Also in 846/847 CE, Egaku brought his hand-copied manuscript of the "Collected Works of Bai Juyi" to Japan.^[5]^: 47–49 The poems of the famous Chinese poet Bai Juyi were already introduced earlier into Japan. ^{[note 23]} However, Egaku's copy was a complete early copy and had a significant influence on subsequent Japanese Sinitic poetry ^[12]^: 18 and native literature such as The Tale of Genji and The Pillow Book.^[12]^: 24–25

The Kanazawa edition is a copy of Egaku's original document. Kept initially at the Kanazawa library founded in the Kamakura period, the Kanazawa edition is no longer a complete copy.^[17] The Kanazawa edition preserves the original form of the "Collected Works of Bai Juyi" as revised by Bai Juyi himself. This edition also has Egaku's annotated notes, which describe the historical circumstances facing Egaku when he was copying the text.

On possibly his last trip to Tang China (863 CE), Egaku accompanied the ex-crown prince turned Buddhist monk Takaoka Shinnō (高丘たかおか親王しんのう) into Tang China. Takaoka Shinnō later was reputed to have attempted travel to India by ship from Guangzhou in 865 CE, in pursuit of answers to his questions related to Buddhism. Unfortunately, he reportedly died in Singapore.^{[note 24]}

Egaku also had an "agate-colored stele" made on his behalf in Suzhou's Kaiyuan Monastery by the Chinese Zen monk Qieyuan, entitled "Record of the Nation of Japan’s First Zen School."^[5]^{[note 25]} This agate stele once stood in Heian-kyō's Rashōmon, and Tōdai-ji once preserved four large fragments of this stele. The significance of this agate stele is that it was one of the few contemporaneous records describing Egaku's recruitment of Gikū as the first Zen monk to Japan. It was one of the sources used by Kokan Shiren to write the Egaku article found in Japan's earliest Buddhist history, the Genkō Shakusho.

Legacy in China

Egaku in China

Egaku obtained a statue of Avalokitesvara from the Central Peak of Mount Wutai. Photo shows a modern temple located on the top of the Central Peak.
Guanyin Leaps is on Mount Putuo. Silla Reef is to the east of Guanyin Leaps. Egaku's ship ran aground on Silla Reef.
Xifang Jingyuan is next to Guanyin Leaps on Mount Putuo. The temple houses a memorial hall commemorating Egaku.
Unwilling to Leave Guanyin Temple was the name of the first permanent shrine for Egaku's statue of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva on Mount Putuo. Today's temple commemorate this event.^[18]
Puji Temple is the current name of the temple formerly called Unwilling to Leave Guanyin Temple. It is the site where a fisherman by the surname of Zhang, first moved and housed the sacred statue of Guanyin left behind by Egaku near the Cave of Tidal Sounds.
Puji Temple's Universal Treasure Hall features an 8.8 meter high seated 8 petal Vairocana-crowned Guanyin Bodhisattva accompanied by Sudhana and Nāgakanya. Adjacent on both sides are statues of 32 forms of Guanyin Bodhisattva.

In 863 Egaku went again on a pilgrimage to Mount Wutai. This time, he saw a wooden statue of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva with an elegant and refined appearance and an ever-joyful face while on a trip to a temple located in the central peak of Mount Wutai.^[10]^: 40^{[note 26]} Egaku wished to take this statue back to Japan and asked for the monks’ permission. The monks acquiesced to his request. He brought the statue to Ningbo's Kaiyuan Monastery on a palanquin, located the merchant Zhang Youxing's ship, and prepared to leave for Japan. However, the statue became extremely heavy, and he was unable to bring it onto the ship. Egaku succeeded in bringing the statue aboard the ship only with the combined efforts of numerous merchants from Silla. The boat then set sailed and approached the waters near Putuoshan where huge angry waves and violent winds impeded its progress. The ship went aground on Silla Reef ^[10]^: 40^{[note 27]} and then it drifted to the Cave of Tidal Sounds. Egaku that evening had a dream where he saw a foreign monk who told him, "If you place me on this mountain, I will command the winds to send you on your way."^[7]^: 60^{[note 28]} Egaku told everyone aboard of his dream, and everyone was astonished. Still, they came ashore and built a straw hut to place the statue of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. After making farewell obeisance to the statue, they boarded the ship and left for Japan. An inhabitant of Putuoshan surname Zhang witnessed these events and enshrined the statue in his house for worship. After his death, they built the first permanent shrine to Guanyin Bodhisattva on Putuoshan in 916 CE, named "Unwilling to Leave Guanyin Temple."^[4]^[7]^{: 13, 60–61}^[19]^[20]^{: 543–544} Later generations of worshipers honored Egaku as the founder of the Avalokiteśvara bodhimanda on Putuoshan. ^{[note 9]} ^[13]^: 81–83^{[note 29]} Putuoshan now has an "Master Egaku Commemorative Hall" with a shrine dedicated to Egaku and thirty-three manifestations of Avalokitesvara located at Xifang Jingyuan, the temple next to Guanyin Leaps^[7]^: 61

Modern Discoveries

Archaeologists discovered a stone dharani pillar decorated with three entwining dragons and engraved with the text of the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra in Kyoto's Anshō-ji Temple in 1953.^[6]^: 2 ^[15]^{: 115–116} Egaku brought this column back to Japan either in 841 or 842 CE. One can see the column on display at the Kyoto National Museum.

Movies

In the acclaimed 2013 movie Avalokitesvara, a loose adaptation of the Putuoshan genesis story, Nagaizumi Hideo starred as Egaku.

Notes

^ ^a ^b Saichō died in 822 CE; as Egaku was his disciple, he was born before 822 CE
^ Foguangshan p 7605 慧とし萼がく日本にっぽん臨濟宗りんざいしゅう僧そう。Hui'E, a Japanese Rinzai sect monk.
^ Putuoshan 于是，留とめ下か弟子でし仁じん济、顺昌两人，白しろ己おのれ朝礼ちょうれい天台山てんだいざん...Egaku went by himself on a pilgrimage to Mount Tiantai [home to the Chinese Tiantai sect, the ancestral home of the Japanese Tendai sect] and left behind his two disciples Jinsai and Junshō...]
^ Egaku or Hui'E did not have a standardized Chinese character name. However, all of these names were either Chinese or Japanese homonyms respectively.^[1]
^ Chen 于是命いのち慧とし萼がく到いた齐安处留学がく，可か以看出で慧とし萼がく还不是ぜ一个普通的入唐求法僧人，其一举一动都代表着皇族的意思，与あずか日本にっぽん王室おうしつ有ゆう着ぎ很深的てき渊源。[Tachibana Kachiko (Empress Dowager)] commanded Hui'E to find Yanguan Qi'an so that he could learn Zen from him. Hui'E was not an ordinary monk traveling to Tang China at liberty to learn as he wished. For every movement he made, was on behalf of the [Japanese] royal house, and he had a deep relationship with them.
^ Tanaka ９世紀せいきに日にち唐とうを頻繁ひんぱんに往来おうらいし、日にち中ちゅうの宗教しゅうきょう・文化ぶんかに多大ただいの影響えいきょうを与あたえた日本にっぽん僧そう慧とし萼がくについて…Regarding Egaku who frequently traveled to and from Japan and China and who had a huge impact on the religion and culture of Japan and China
^ Foguangshan p.7605 後こう參さん謁杭州こうしゅう靈れい池寺いけでら齊ひとし安やす國師こくし，轉てん達たち太ふとし后きさき之の旨むね，延のべ請義空そら禪師ぜんじ赴日弘ひろ揚あげ禪ぜん法ほう，自じ此日本にっぽん始はじめ傳でん臨濟宗りんざいしゅう。Later Egaku visited the national preceptor Yanguan Qi'an at Hangzhou's Lingchi Monastery and communicated the wishes of the Empress Dowager (for a Zen monk). Yikong [Gikū in Japanese] was then dispatched to Japan to propagate the Zen teachings. The Japanese Rinzai sect began in this manner.
^ Wang 据すえ明あきら崇たかし祯年间高僧こうそう木き陈道忞所撰せん《普ひろし陀山梵音庵あん释迦文ぶん佛舍利ぶっしゃり塔とう碑ひ》记载：…去さ明あきら州しゅう薄すすき海かい五ご百ひゃく里さと外がい，复有山ありやま曰补怛洛迦者，则普门大士し化か亦また所ところ显，以佛菩萨慈悲じひ姻缘故こ，故こ自じ晋すすむ之の大だい康やすし，…说明早はや在ざい东晋南北なんぼく朝あさ，已やめ有ゆう信徒しんと们纷纷来山さん朝拜ちょうはい。According to the disciple of Tiantong Temple's Miyun, the Chinese Linji sect monk and then later the Hongjue National Preceptor, Muchen Daowen's (1596-1674) "Putuoshan Brahma Monastery Sarira Pagoda of Shakyamuni Buddha Stele" carved during the Chong Zhen regnal era (1622-1644), it is recorded: …Five hundred li from Mingzhou (today’s Ningbo), there is a mountain called Potalaka, this is where the Mahāsattva of Potalaka manifests, due to the karmic affinities of the Buddha and Bodhisattva's Great Compassion, starting from the Jin Dynasty Tai Kang regnal period… This quote explains that as early as the Eastern Jin dynasty period and the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, there were already worshipers coming one after another to Putuoshan for pilgrimage.
^ ^a ^b Putuoshan 后きさき人じん尊称そんしょう慧とし锷为普ひろし陀山佛教ぶっきょう开山祖そ师。Later generations respectfully named Hui'E as the founder of Putuoshan.
^ Ennin p 810 [Although Egaku did not write any travel diary, he is mentioned in Ennin's Diary...] 841 CE 9th Day of the 7th Moon I heard that the Japanese monk Egaku and his disciples, three persons in all, had arrived at Mt. Wu-t'ai. The Master had vowed, in order to seek his alms in all directions, he would return to his homeland, but he is having his two disciples stay at Mt. Wu-t'ai.
^ Reeves p 352–3 Inoue (in Inoue, “Danrin kōgō (Tachibana no Kachiko),” 64; the original text is found in Buntoku Jitsuroku (one of the six traditional Japanese histories), Kashō 3 (850).5.5, where the passage translated above reads, in the original, as follows: 后きさき為ため人じん寬和ひろかず風ふう容よう絶ぜっ異い手て過か於膝髪かみ委い於地観かん者しゃ皆みな驚おどろき.) argues, that Kachiko’s contemporaries certainly associated her with Hokkeji Temple, and especially with the figure of the Eleven-Faced Avalokitesvara, who also had hands reaching to her knees.
^ Foguangshan p 7472 宣せん宗むね敕諡「悟空ごくう大師だいし」之これ號ごう，並なみ以御詩し追悼ついとう。[Yanguan Qi'an died in 842 CE in his 90s before the ascension of Emperor Tang Xuānzong.] Emperor Xuānzong awards Yanguan Qi'an, the title "Wukong National Preceptor" and mourned him with imperial poetry. He was a distant member of the Tang royal family surnamed Li.
^ Hangzhou's Linchi Monastery was located in Yanguan, 50 kilometers away from Hangzhou and was later bestowed the name An'guo Monastery by Emperor Xuānzong. The Monastery was taken down in 1978.
^ Katsūra Egaku gave some of the offerings to shrines dedicated to manifestations of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva.
^ Chen With the onset of the Huichang persecution, Hui'E went into hiding in Suzhou's Baisheren Chan Monastery under the false identity of a Buddhist layperson named Kongwu. He tried to leave on a ship from Chuzhou, but they blocked all ships from leaving. The persecution forced him to hide for over a year until the ascension of Emperor Xuānzong.
^ Foguangshan 7010 與あずか道みち昉等東ひがし渡わたし日本にっぽん--Gikū was accompanied by Dōhō and others on his trip east to Japan.
^ Although Japan had earlier Zen masters who either came or returned to Japan, such as Dōshō and Dōsen, they also taught the teachings of other sects. As such, Gikū is the first exclusively Zen master from the Southern School to reside in the new capital of Heian-kyō.
^ Ōtsuki また橘たちばな嘉よしみ智子さとこだけでなく皇帝こうてい（仁明天皇にんみょうてんのう）や中ちゅう散大さんだい夫おっと藤ふじ公こう兄弟きょうだいといった官僚かんりょうの帰依きえも厚あつかったことが知しられる。Records indicate that not only Tachibana Kachiko but the Emperor Ninmyō and the bureaucrat Chūsan Daifu Fujiwara brothers were sincere and also took refuge with Gikū.
^ Groner Danrin Temple was also a nunnery for nuns who observed the bhikkuni precepts. Tachibana Kachiko herself became a nun once her Emperor son Ninmyō became sick and lived at Danrin Temple until her death.
^ Ōtsuki さらに師し蛮は，義よし空そら伝でんの賛さんにおいて，義よし空そら渡来とらい後ご「...，実じつ悟さとるせし者もの，橘たちばな后きさき一いち人にんのみ，空そら公こう，時じ未いまだ熟こなせざるを知しり，之これを辞じして帰き唐とうす」と記しるし...Mangen Shiban (1626-1710), a Japanese Rinzai Zen scholar-monk who wrote two Buddhist histories the "Enpō Record of the Transmission of the Lamp" and the "Honchō Records of the High Priest" said in his praises of the Record of Gikū, after Gikū arrived in Japan, "...Tachibana Kachiko was the only person who truly understood [Zen]. Gikū thought the time was not ripe for Zen. Therefore, he resigned and then returned to Tang China...", ...田中たなか史生ふみお氏しによると滞在たいざい期間きかんは十じゅう年ねんにも満みたなかった可能かのう性せいが高たかく，856（唐とう・大中おおなか10，日本にっぽん・斉ひとし衡 3 ）年ねん前後ぜんこうまでの間あいだと推定すいていされている。According to Tanaka Fumio, it is very likely Gikū only stayed in Japan for less than ten years. He theorizes its highly likely that Gikū stayed only until sometime around 856 CE.
^ Hibino こ，に当時とうじの禅ぜんの受容じゅようのあり方かたを知しることができる。…呪術じゅじゅつ的てきに受うけ入いれられたのであった。斯様かように歪曲わいきょくされて受容じゅようされた禅ぜんは、....禅ぜんそのものを理会りかいすることもできず――従したがって必要ひつようともしない状態じょうたいの中なかにあって、その後ごに継承けいしょう・発展はってんするべくもなかった... From this, we know Heian society accepted Zen in the form of mantra ceremonies. This type of convoluted acceptance made society unable to understand Zen itself, and since [the distinctive aspects unique to Zen] was unneeded then, [Zen] was unable to be passed down and develop.
^ Dōshō, Dōsen, Gikū and later Kakua attempted to introduce Zen into Japan. All failed in their attempts. It would take four hundred more years after Giku before Zen firmly established itself in Japan in the 13th century. cf. Eisai, Dogen and Nanpo Shōmyō.
^ Although there were other Japanese who had already introduced Bai Juyi's Poetry into Japan such as Ennin's 6 scroll copy of the "Collected Works of Bai Juyi" in 839 and Fujiwara no Okamori's (808-851 CE) copy of "Yuan Bai Shi Ji" or "Selection of Yuan Zhen and Bai Juyi's Poetry" in 838 CE, both were incomplete.
^ Takaoka Shinno left with three followers in 865 CE by ship from Guangzhou destination India. Afterward, people in Tang China lost contact with him. Sixteen years later in 881 CE, Chūkan, a Japanese scholar-monk visiting Tang China reported that Takaoka Shinnō had died in Singapore. Some other sources mentioned that a tiger killed Takaoka Shinnō. Recently an imperial pagoda was erected in Johor Bahru's Japanese cemetery.
^ Chen 慧とし萼がく还专门请苏州开元寺てら高僧こうそう契ちぎり元もと制作せいさく了りょう一块题为枟日本国首传禅宗记枠的玛瑙石碑立在罗城门侧。Hui'E asked the senior monk of Suzhou's Kaiyuan Monastery Qieyuan, to compose an agate(-colored) stele entitled "Record of the Nation of Japan's First Zen School." The stele was later placed to the side of Heian-kyō's Rashōmon Gate.
^ Park 日本国にっぽんこく僧そう惠めぐみ锷诣五台山ごだいさん敬礼けいれい。至いたり中台ちゅうたい精舍しょうじゃ，见观音おん貌像端はし雅みやび，喜き生せい颜间，乃就恳求愿すなお迎むかい归其国こく，寺てら众从之の。The Japanese monk Hui'E went on a pilgrimage on Mount Wutai. He arrived at a temple on the Central Peak. (Mount Wutai has five mountain peaks - the Central peak is one of them) He stood in awe of a statue of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva with an elegant and refined appearance and with an ever-joyful face. Moreover, he then beseeches [the monks of Mount Wutai] to allow him to take it back to Japan after which the monks agreed.
^ Park 新しん罗礁位い于离普ひろし陀山岛“观音跳とべ”东侧...Silla Reef is a reef off the coast of Putuoshan to the east of the site called "Guanyin Leaps".
^ Wang 胡えびす僧そう就是菩萨化身けしん the foreign monk is a manifestation of [Avalokiteśvara] Bodhisattva.
^ Binghenheimer Wang Liansheng draws attention to the fact that some thirteenth century sources cite the Tang poet and official Wei Xuan 韋絢 (801-866) as a source for the association of Mount Putuo with Egaku. According to the Baoqing Siming Zhi (1226), Wei Xuan had left a record concerning the events of Egaku’s return voyage, which must be considered contemporary. Unfortunately, Wei Xuan's text is now lost, but I agree with Wang Liansheng that this reference in the Baoqing Siming Zhi makes it likely that Egaku was indeed involved in the founding of Mount Putuo. In all likelihood his visit took place in 859 or 863 CE.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Putuoshan 2017 慧とし锷，又また译惠萼がく、慧とし谔、慧とし萼がく[、惠めぐみ蕚]，是ぜ入唐にっとう求法ぐほう的てき学がく问僧和わ请益僧そう，又また是ぜ日本にっぽん天台宗てんだいしゅう始祖しそ最澄さいちょう大だい师高足こうそく。Hui'E, also known as 慧とし锷，惠めぐみ萼がく、慧とし谔、慧とし萼がく[、惠めぐみ蕚] was the disciple of the founder of the Japanese Tendai Sect Saichō.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Foguangshan 1989
^ ^a ^b Chen 2010, p. 47 最さい后きさき于咸通どおり五ご年ねん（日本にっぽん贞观六ろく年ねん，８６４）和かず入唐にっとう僧そう贤真、忠ただし全ぜん等とう一起从明州回到日本。从此以后，其名便びん消失しょうしつ在ざい这一时代的史籍之外了。Egaku returned to Japan for the last time in 864 CE from Ningbo; with two Japanese monks who had earlier accompanied him on the way to China, Genma and Zenchū. After that, Egaku's name disappears from the historical record.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Putuoshan 2017
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Chen 2010
^ ^a ^b ^c Tanaka 2011
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Wang 2009
^ Ennin 850
^ Hashimoto 1972
^ ^a ^b ^c Park 2003
^ ^a ^b ^c Ōtsuki 2008
^ ^a ^b ^c Reeves 2018
^ ^a ^b Binghenheimer 2016
^ ^a ^b Groner 1997
^ ^a ^b Katsūra 2017
^ Hibino 1972
^ Gotoh Museum. 氏し白しろ文集ぶんしゅう・金沢かなざわ文庫本ぶんこぼん [Collected Works of Bai Juyi・Kanazawa Library Manuscript]. 五島ごしま美術館びじゅつかん・The Gotoh Museum (in Japanese). Retrieved 1 August 2019. Picture of the poem "Song of the Everlasting Regret" on a manuscript leaf of the Kanazawa edition of the "Collected Works of Bai Juyi" -- transl summary of text: The Tang poet Bai Juyi's "Collected Works of Bai Juyi" has had a tremendous impact on Japanese Sinitic poetry and prose....The Kanazawa library was the best medieval library. Later many items were scattered and lost.
^ If one magnifies this photo, on the right side, there is a relief showing Egaku offering obeisance to the famous statue of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva on Mount Wutai. The Cave of Tidal Sounds is located on the seashore to the right of this shrine [not shown].
^ Putuoshan-en 2017
^ Yü 2000

Sources

Binghenheimer, Marcus (2016). Island of Guanyin Mount Putuo and Its Gazetteers. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190456191.
Chen, Chong (陈翀) (2010). 慧とし萼がく东传枟白氏し文集ぶんしゅう枠わく及普陀洛迦开山やま考こう [On the Spread of Baishi Wenji to Japan by Hui E and the First Temple on Putuo‐Luojia Mountain]. 浙江せっこう大学だいがく学がく报 (人文じんぶん社会しゃかい科学かがく版ばん) Journal of Zhejiang University (Humanities and Social Sciences Edition) (in Simplified Chinese). 40 (5): 44–54.
Ennin (1955) [850]. 入唐にっとう求法ぐほう巡禮じゅんれい行ぎょう記き [Ennin's Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law]. Translated by Reischauer, Edwin O. ISBN 9780826074003.
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