Japanese adjectives
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This article deals with Japanese equivalents of English adjectives.
Types of adjective[edit]
In Japanese, nouns and verbs can modify nouns, with nouns taking the 〜の particles when functioning attributively (in the genitive case), and verbs in the attributive form. These are considered separate classes of words, however.
Most of the words that can be considered to be adjectives in Japanese fall into one of two categories – variants of verbs, and nouns:
- adjectival verb (Japanese:
形容詞 , keiyōshi, literally形容 "description" or "appearance" +詞 "word"), or i-adjectives
- These can be considered specialized verbs, in that they inflect for various aspects such as past tense or negation, and they can be used predicatively to end a sentence, without the need for any other "to be" verb. For example, atsui (
暑 い) "hot":暑 い日 (Atsui hi) ("a hot day")今日 は暑 い。(Kyō wa atsui.) ("Today is hot.")
- adjectival noun (
形容動詞 , keiyō-dōshi, literally形容 "description" or "appearance" +動詞 "verb"[a]), or na-adjectives
- These can be considered a form of noun in terms of syntax; these attach to the copula, which then inflects, but use 〜な (-na) (rather than the genitive 〜の) when modifying a noun. For example, hen (
変 ) "strange":変 な人 (Hen-na hito) ("a strange person")彼 は変 だ。(Kare wa hen da.) ("He is strange.")
Both the predicative forms (
Japanese adjectives that do not fall into either of these categories are usually grouped into a grab-bag category:
- attributives (
連体詞 , rentaishi, literally連 "connects, goes with" +体 "body", short for体言 "uninflecting word" such as a noun +詞 "word")
- These may only occur before nouns, and not in a predicative position. They are various in derivation and word class, and are generally analyzed as variants of more basic classes, where this specific form (possibly a fossil) can only be used in restricted settings. For example, ōkina (
大 きな) "big" (variant of大 きい):大 きな事 (Ōkina koto) ("a big thing")
A couple of small sub-categories can be distinguished in these categories, reflecting former grammatical distinctions or constructions which no longer exist:
- shii-adjectives (form of i-adjectives, see below)
- -yaka na adjectives (see below)
- -raka na adjectives (see below)
- taru-adjectives (ト・タル
形容動詞 , to, taru keiyōdōshi, literally "to, taru adjectival noun")
- These are a variant of the common na-adjectives that developed in Late Old Japanese and have mostly died out, surviving in a few cases as fossils; they are usually classed as a form of
形容動詞 (na-adjective), as the Japanese name indicates.
- These are words that were traditionally earlier forms of na-adjectives, but that followed a path similar to taru-adjectives, surviving in a few cases as fossils. These are generally classed as attributives.
Syntax[edit]
i-adjectives[edit]
i-adjectives end with い (i) (but never えい, ei) in base form. They may predicate sentences and inflect for past, negative, etc. As they head verb phrases, they can be considered a type of verbal (verb-like part of speech) and inflect in an identical manner as the negative form of verbs. Their inflections are different and not so numerous as full verbs.
i-adjectives are considered verbs because they inflect with the same bases as verbs and their respective usages: irrealis (
Among the six bases of verbs for i-adjectives, there exist two sets of inflection paradigms: a "plain" or "true" conjugation, and what is known as a kari-conjugation (カリ
The stem of i-adjectives can combine (prepend on the left), similar to the continuative form of verbs, though this is less common than for verbs. Conversely, nouns or verb stems can sometimes prepend i-adjectives, or two i-adjectives can combine, forming compound modifiers; these are much less common than Japanese compound verbs. Common examples include omo-shiro-i (
shii-adjectives[edit]
A number of i-adjectives end in -shii (〜しい) (sometimes written -sii). These are overwhelmingly words for feelings, like kanashii (
Adjectives that end in -jii (〜じい) are also considered -shii adjectives, such as susamajii (
na-adjectives[edit]
na-adjectives always occur with a form of the copula, traditionally considered part of the na-adjective itself. The only syntactical difference between nouns and na-adjective is in the attributive form, where nouns take の (no) and adjectives take な (na). This has led many linguists to consider them a type of nominal (noun-like part of speech). Through use of inflected forms of the copula, these words can also predicate sentences and inflect for past, negative, etc.
Notably, na-adjective are distinct from regular nouns, in that they cannot be used as the topic, subject, or object. To function in these roles, the na-adjectives must include the nominalizing suffix さ (-sa), broadly similar to the English suffix -ness that is used to create nouns from adjectives.
-yaka na adjectives[edit]
There are a number of na-adjectives ending in 〜やか (-yaka), particularly for subjective words (compare i-adjectives ending in -shii). This is believed to be a combination of the two suffixes 〜や (-ya) and 〜か (-ka), where 〜や meant "softness" and 〜か meant "apparent, visible" (similar to modern 〜そう, -sō, which is also followed by 〜な), hence the combination 〜やか meant "appears somewhat ..., looks slightly ...". This was believed to have been used in the Nara era, and have become particularly popular in the Heian period, but is no longer productive.[1][better source needed] In some cases the original word is now only used (or almost always used) in the 〜やか form, such as
-raka na adjectives[edit]
Similarly, there are also a few na-adjectives ending in 〜らか (-raka), of similar origin. These are generally less subjective, but declined in popularity relative to the 〜やか construction in the Heian period[1][better source needed] Notable examples include
taru-adjectives[edit]
A variant of na-adjectives exist, which take 〜たる (-taru) when functioning attributively (as an adjective, modifying a noun), and 〜と (-to) when functioning adverbially (when modifying a verb),[2][better source needed] instead of the 〜な (-na) and 〜に (-ni) which are mostly used with na-adjectives. taru-adjectives do not predicate a sentence (they cannot end a sentence, as verbs and i-adjectives can) or take the copula (as na-adjectives and nouns can), but must modify a noun or verb. Note that sometimes na-adjectives take a 〜と, and Japanese sound symbolisms generally take a (sometimes optional) 〜と, though these are different word classes.
There are very few of these words,[3][better source needed] and they usually are considered somewhat stiff or archaic; this word class is generally not covered in textbooks for foreign language learners of Japanese. One of the most common is
See
naru-adjectives[edit]
There are also a few naru-adjectives such as
Attributives[edit]
Attributives are few in number, and unlike the other words, are strictly limited to modifying nouns. Attributives never predicate sentences. They derive from other word classes, and so are not always given the same treatment syntactically. For example, ano (あの, "that") can be analysed as a noun or pronoun あ (a) plus the genitive ending の (no); aru (ある or
It can be seen that attributives are analysed variously as nouns, verbs, or adjectival nouns.
Archaic forms[edit]
Various archaic forms from Middle Japanese remain as fossils, primarily uses of -shi (〜し) or -ki (〜き) forms that in Modern Japanese would usually be -i (〜い). Everyday examples notably include yoshi (
Inflection[edit]
i-adjective[edit]
i-adjectives have a basic inflection created by dropping the 〜い (-i) from the end and replacing it with the appropriate ending. i-adjectives are made more polite by the use of です (desu). です is added directly after the inflected plain form and has no syntactic function; its only purpose is to make the utterance more polite (see Honorific speech in Japanese).
present | past | present neg. | past neg. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
i-adjective | あつい (atsui) | あつかった (atsukatta) | あつくない (atsuku nai) | あつくなかった (atsuku nakatta) |
polite i-adj. | あついです (atsui desu) | あつかったです (atsukatta desu) | あつくないです (atsuku nai desu) あつくありません (atsuku arimasen) |
あつくなかったです (atsuku nakatta desu) あつくありませんでした (atsuku arimasen deshita) |
いい (ii, "good") is a special case because it comes from the adjective
い (i)-adjectives like
i-adjectives have a full verb inflection paradigm created through contraction with the former copular verb あり (ari), consisting of six verb bases, that obeys the grammar surrounding verbs in Japanese. The usage of the full inflection is more limited in Modern Japanese and the majority of adjective usage in Japanese will be within the bounds of the basic inflection above. Auxiliary verbs are attached to some of the verb bases in order to convey information; only the terminal, attributive, and imperative bases are used on their own without auxiliary support.
Irrealis ( |
Continuative ( |
Terminal ( |
Attributive ( |
Hypothetical ( |
Imperative ( |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
あつかろ (atsukaro) あつから (atsukara, (formal)) |
あつく (atsuku) あつかり (atsukari, (formal)) |
あつい (atsui) あつし (atsushi, (obsolete or formal)) |
あつい (atsui) あつき (atsuki, (formal)) |
あつけれ (atsukere) | あつかれ (atsukare) |
The two irrealis stems, 〜かろ (karo) and 〜から (kara), are used for different purposes. The 〜かろ stem is used to create the volitional inflection by appending the volitional auxiliary 〜う (u), e.g.
The volitional form is generally used to convey supposition or presumption; there are also set phrases which utilize this form, a notable example being the volitional form of
The imperative form is rarely used outside of set expressions; a common usage is once again with
na-adjective[edit]
na-adjectives have a basic inflection created by dropping the 〜な (-na) and replacing it with the appropriate form of the verb だ (da), the copula. As with i-adjectives, na-adjectives are also made more polite by the use of です (desu). です is used in its role as the polite form of the copula, therefore replacing だ (the plain form of the copula) in the plain form of these adjectives.
present | past | present neg. | past neg. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
na-adjective | へんだ (hen da) | へんだった (hen datta) | へんではない (hen dewa[i] nai) | へんではなかった (hen dewa nakatta) |
polite na-adj. | へんです (hen desu) | へんでした (hen deshita) | へんではありません (hen dewa arimasen) | へんではありませんでした (hen dewa arimasen deshita) |
- ^ The では (de wa) in the conjugation of the copula is often contracted in speech to じゃ (ja).
な (na)-adjectives have なら (nara) added to them to change to conditional form, and just like all other ない (nai) form inflections, behave like an い (i)-adjective when in negative form, e.g.,
Because na-adjectives are simply suffixed with the copula だ, they, too, like i-adjectives, have a full verb inflection paradigm with six bases that obeys the grammar surrounding Japanese verbs.
Irrealis ( |
Continuative ( |
Terminal ( |
Attributive ( |
Hypothetical ( |
Imperative ( |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
へんだろ (hen daro) へんでは (hen dewa) へんなら (hen nara, (formal or naru-adjective)) |
へんで (hen de) へんに (hen ni) へんなり (hen nari, (obsolete or formal or naru-adjective)) |
へんだ (hen da) へんなり (hen nari, (obsolete or formal or naru-adjective)) |
へんな (hen na) へんなる (hen naru, (formal or naru-adjective)) |
へんなら (hen nara) へんなれ (hen nare, (obsolete or naru-adjective)) |
へんであれ (hen de are) へんなれ (hen nare, (formal or naru-adjective)) |
Similarly to i-adjectives, out of the multiple irrealis stems, the 〜だろ (daro) irrealis stem is only used with the volitional auxiliary suffix 〜う (u), to form the volitional form suffixed with volitional copula 〜だろう (darō), used primarily to present a supposition or presumption. The 〜では (dewa) irrealis stem is not considered a true irrealis stem because it is simply the continuative stem plus the case particle は (wa), but is nevertheless suffixied with standard negation auxiliary 〜ない (nai) to form the negative form (see the basic inflection above). The 〜なら (nara) irrealis stem is used with the formal negation auxiliary 〜ず (zu) and all other uses of the irrealis stem.
The 〜なる (naru) attributive form exists as a fossil from the archaic ナリ
The 〜なる (naru) attributive form is also used in naru-adjectives, like
taru-adjective[edit]
taru-adjectives have much more limited usage in Modern Japanese and generally can only be used attributively with 〜たる (taru) or adverbially with 〜と (to). Generally, to express past or negative forms, additional other words or syntax are added to the sentence rather than using the full verb paradigm. However, nevertheless, taru-adjectives do have a full verb paradigm with six bases that obeys the grammar surrounding verbs in Japanese, which may be used in archaic or highly formal speech.
Irrealis ( |
Continuative ( |
Terminal ( |
Attributive ( |
Hypothetical ( |
Imperative ( |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
どうどうたろ (dōdō taro) どうどうたら (dōdō tara) |
どうどうと (dōdō to) どうどうたり (dōdō tari) |
どうどうたり (dōdō tari, (obsolete)) | どうどうたる (dōdō taru) | どうどうたれ (dōdō tare) | どうどうたれ (dōdō tare) |
The terminal form 〜たり (tari) is almost never used. Generic words like
Adverb forms[edit]
Both i-adjectives and na-adjectives can form adverbs. In the case of i-adjectives, い (i) changes to く (ku):
熱 くなる (atsuku naru, "become hot")
and in the case of na-adjectives, な (na) changes to に (ni):
変 になる (hen ni naru, "become strange")
There are also some words like たくさん (takusan) and
全然 分 かりません (zenzen wakarimasen, "[I] absolutely not understand.")
adverb | |
---|---|
i-adjective | はやく (hayaku, "quickly") |
na-adjective | しずかに (shizuka ni, "quietly") |
taru-adjective | ゆうぜんと (yuuzen to, "calmly") |
In a few cases, a 〜に (ni) form of a word is common while a 〜な (na) form is rare or non-existent, as in
Terminology[edit]
This page | Japanese (kanji) | Japanese (rōmaji) | Other names |
---|---|---|---|
adjectival verbs | keiyōshi | adjectival verbs, i-adjectives, adjectives, stative verbs | |
adjectival nouns | keiyōdōshi | adjectival nouns,[a] na-adjectives, copular nouns, quasi-adjectives, nominal adjectives, adjectival verbs[a] | |
attributives | rentaishi | attributives, true adjectives, prenominals, pre-noun adjectivals |
The Japanese word keiyōshi is used to denote an English adjective.
Because the widespread study of Japanese is still relatively new in the Western world, there are no generally accepted English translations for the above parts of speech, with varying texts adopting different sets, and others extant not listed above.
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ a b c In the traditional Japanese grammar, keiyō-dōshi, literally "adjective verb", includes the copula, while the adjectival noun in the analysis shown here does not include it. For example, in the traditional grammar, kirei da is a keiyō-dōshi and kirei is its stem; in the analysis here, kirei is an adjectival noun and kirei da is its combination with the copula. Considering the copula is a kind of verb and kirei is a kind of noun syntactically, both names make sense.
References[edit]
- ^ a b 3.11. Why are there so many adjectives ending in yaka?
- ^ reply by JimmySeal (6 October 2007). "What on earth is a たる adjective?". Reviewing the Kanji forum. Archived from the original on 21 Mar 2016.
- ^ A list of taru adjectives is given at: List of -taru Adjectives, Michael Panzer, BlastitWonner, February 24, 2009
- ^ a b answer by Boaz Yaniv, 2011 Jun 13, to What exactly is a “taru adjective” at Japanese Language & Usage, StackExchange
- ^ post by akibare on 2005-12-23 Archived 2012-03-26 at the Wayback Machine at -たる? on linguaphiles forum
- ^ "Adjectives - Learn Japanese".
External links[edit]
- Why does Japanese have two kinds of adjectives? (-i adjectives and -na adjectives), Boaz Yaniv, 2011 Jun 13, Japanese Language & Usage, Stack Exchange[unreliable source?]