Tongzhi (term)
Tongzhi | |||||||||||||||
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Chinese | |||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | 'same will', 'same purpose', 'comrade' | ||||||||||||||
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Tongzhi is a form of style used in China that taken on different meanings in the 20th century depending on context. It was first introduced into vernacular Chinese by Sun Yat-sen as a way of describing his followers. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC), tongzhi was used to mean "comrade" in a communist sense: it was used to address almost everyone, male and female, young and old. In recent years, however, this meaning of the term has fallen out of common usage, except within Chinese Communist Party (CCP) discourse and among people of older generations.[1]
In contemporary Taiwan, Macau, and Hong Kong, the term mainly refers to LGBT people instead of the traditional political usage.[2]
In party politics
[edit]It remains in use in a formal context among political parties in both mainland China and Taiwan. Within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), categorizing a person as a comrade is especially significant for a person who has been denounced or demoted, because it indicates that the party has not completely rejected the person as "one of its own". In Taiwan, the term also remains in formal usage in party politics. For example, after losing the 2008 presidential election, Frank Hsieh said: "many comrades hoped that I could stay till May 25" (很多
In October 2014, the CCP reiterated the necessity of its members using "comrade" to refer to one another.[4][5] Earlier in May, the party's disciplinary committee in Guangdong province had banned its members from addressing one another as "boss", "buddy", or "bro". The committee reasoned that these terms are known to be used in private enterprises or mafia circles, and thus are "influences of bureaucratism and sectarianism" which "blemish[es] the party and government's image".[5][6]
Military use
[edit]The word comrade is in the regulations of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) as one of three appropriate ways to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position, as in "Comrade Colonel", or simply "comrade" when lacking information about the person's rank, or talking to several people.)[7]
LGBTQ community use
[edit]Since the 1990s, the term is increasingly being used to refer to sexual minorities in Macau, Hong Kong, mainland China, and Taiwan.[8][9] This use of the term was first adopted by Michael Lam, a columnist for the Hong Kong-based City Magazine, and was popularized by the inaugural Hong Kong Lesbian and Gay Film Festival in 1989, whose aim was to present same-sex relationships as positive and suggesting solidarity between LGBT people, while also providing an indigenous term to describe same-sex love.
In LGBT communities, Tongzhi is preferred over tongxinglian (
Although the term initially referred to gay (
See also
[edit]- Homosexuality in China
- Taiwan Tongzhi Hotline Association
- Tongqi
- Generation gap
- LGBT topics and Confucianism
- Tovarishch (disambiguation)
References
[edit]- ^ a b Chou (2011), p. 2.
- ^ Leap, William (2013). Globalization and Gay Language. Malden, MA: Wiley–Blackwell. pp. 560–561. ISBN 978-1-405-17581-4.
- ^
凝聚 黨 內團結 謝 長 廷:我 決定 留 到 五 二 五 Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine - ^ "
学 习时报" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 24 November 2016. Retrieved 23 November 2016. - ^ a b "China: Keep using 'comrade', says Communist Party". BBC. 19 November 2014.
- ^ Luo, Chris (18 November 2014). "Keep calling each other 'comrade', Chinese Communist Party tells members after rule review". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
- ^ Blasco, Dennis J. (2011). "The Four General Departments". The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-78322-4.
According to regulations, members of the PLA address each other: (1) by their duty position, or (2) by their position plus surname, or (3) by their position plus the title "comrade" (tongzhi). When the duty position of the other person is not known, one service member may address the other by military rank plus the word "comrade" or only as comrade.
- ^ Lixian, Holly Hou (30 November 2001). "LGBT Activism in Mainland China". Solidarity. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
- ^ Wong, Andrew D. (November 2005). "The reappropriation of tongzhi". Language in Society. 34 (5): 763–793. doi:10.1017/S0047404505050281. ISSN 1469-8013. S2CID 145325619.
- ^ Luchkina, Tatiana (2015). "Social deixis in motion: The case of 'COMRADE' in Russian and Mandarin Chinese". In Terkourafi, Marina (ed.). Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Im/politeness. AILA Applied Linguistics Series. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. p. 14. ISBN 978-9-027-20532-2.
While tóngxìnglìan may be perceived as a clinical term with pathological connotations, tóng zhì presents a more colloquial and euphemistic way of communicating the same meaning.
Further reading
[edit]- Chou, Wah-shan (2011) [2000]. Tongzhi: politics of same-sex eroticism in Chinese societies. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-560-23153-0.
- Yuzhi Chen. 2012. Tongzhi in China: A social marker or not? Working Papers in Educational Linguistics (University of Pennsylvania) 27.2: 97–109. Web access to this article[permanent dead link]
External links
[edit]- Canadian Tongzhi Association
加 國 同志 會 中國 國民黨 第 17屆 中央 委員 會 第 2次 全體 會議 出 、列席 同志 發言 須知 ("Rules for speaking for attending comrades at the 2nd plenary meeting of the 17th central committee of the Chinese Kuomintang"): example of usage in KMT discourse