menke 門もん客きゃく, mensheng 門生もんせい, sheren 舍人とねり, retainers

Retainers or clients (binke 賓客ひんきゃく, congshishi 從事じゅうじ史し, menke 門もん客きゃく, menshen 門生もんせい, moushi 謀はかりごと士し, sheren 舍人とねり, shike 食客しょっきゃく, yishike 衣ころも食客しょっきゃく) were clients and supporters of influential persons. Against board and lodging, retainers offered advice and skills to their patron. Some of these "housemen" were kinsmen of their patron.

The high tide of consultant retainers (moushi) was the Warring States period 戰國せんごく (5th cent.-221 BCE), when wandering advisors provided the rulers of regional states (zhuhou 諸侯しょこう) or influential persons political strategies and plans. Particularly famous for the skills of his retainers was Lord Mengchang 孟はじめ嘗君 (died c. 280 BCE) of the regional state of Qi 齊ひとし (11th cent. - 221 BCE). He won reputation and popular support, for instance, through the advice of Feng Xuan 馮諼.

Warring States period retainers were well known as adherents of certain philosophical schools, like Confucianism (rujia 儒家じゅか) or legalism (fajia 法家ほうか), or masters in diplomacy or the forging of coalitions. The most famous diplomatists (zonghengjia 縱橫じゅうおう家か) were Zhang Yi 張ちょう儀ただし (d. 310 BCE) and Su Qin 蘇そ秦はた (late 4th cent. BCE). Retainers were often entrusted with missions on behalf of their patrons, and thus took over important political functions. Lord Pingyuan 平原ひらはら君くん (d. 251 BCE) from the state of Zhao 趙ちょう, for example, was accompanied by twenty retainers during a mission to the kingdom of Chu 楚すわえ.

The number of retainers a patron fed run in the thousands. Lü Buwei 呂りょ不ふ韋 (d. 253 BCE), a rich merchant who engineered the dynastic succession of the state of Qin 秦はた, is said to have nourished three thousand retainers.

Mensheng was a term used for the disciples (dizi 弟子でし) of Confucian scholars during the Han period 漢かん (206 BCE-220 CE). Acceptance as "disciple" of a Confucian master required expertise in the Confucian Classics. For this reason, government and private schools became more widespread in many parts of the empire. Yet the relationship between master and disciple (in modern terms, guanxi 關係かんけい) was often just an important prerequisite for eventually obtaining an office, which mainly happened via recommendation. Huan Rong 桓榮 (1st cent. CE), Chamberlain for Ceremonials (taichang 太ふとし常つね), nourished several hundred "disciples" or retainers. Among these, Ding Hong 丁ちょう鴻ひろし (d. 94 CE) rose to the post of Chamberlain for the Palace Revenues (shaofu 少しょう府ふ). Ding had several thousand retainers himself. Lou Wang 樓ろう望もち (21-100 CE), Chamberlain for the National Treasury (da sinong 大だい司つかさ農みのり) and Chamberlain for Ceremonials, even fed more than 9,000 persons.

In the later decades of the Eastern Han, distinguished families (menfa 門閥もんばつ) won polical influence. They kept many retainers over several generations. The most famous of them were the Yang family from Hongnong 弘ひろ農のう楊氏 and the Yuan family from Runan 汝なんじ南みなみ袁氏. "Disciple" retainers often disbursed high sums to enter the service of a powerful family, and supported them in many fields of their activities, even in illegal ones, as the examples of the eunuch Wang Fu 王おう甫はじめ shows who instructed his retainers to sell official posts for luxurious prices. It was common for retainers to behave to their patron like sons to a father, including a three-year period of mourning when the patron died. In the very late Eastern Han period, retainers were used to create private armies (buqu 部ぶ曲きょく) against bandits and rebels like the Yellow Turbans (huangjin 黃き巾はば).

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties period 南北なんぼく朝あさ (300~600), the term mensheng was used in the sense of menke "retainer" (literally "house guest") and had totally lost the meaning of "scholarly disciple". The institution of private armies remained, as well as the custom to buy one's way into the household of a politically influential person.

Retainers of the Southern Dynasties 南朝なんちょう (420-589) served in the private armies, and were assembled in large numbers. Liu Huaizhen 劉りゅう懷ふところ珍めずらし from the Southern Qi period 南みなみ齊ひとし (479-502), for instance, kept a private guard (suwei 宿衛しゅくえい) of no less than 1,000 men, and famous politician and poet Xie Lingyun 謝しゃ靈れい運うん (385-433) had an army of several hundred men. Among the more than 1,000 retainers of Xu Zhanzhi 徐じょ湛じん之の (410-453), most hailed from rich, but necessarily influential families in the southeast. To bring an example of recommendation and promotion, the case of Xie An 謝しゃ安やす (320-385) might serve well. When he was a cavalry commander under general Huan Wen 桓溫 (312-373), he was able to bring several dozen of his retainers into official posts.

With the introduction of the civil examination system, the word mensheng was used by graduates of the provincial and metropolitan examination referring to themselves when speaking with the chief examiner (zhukao guan 主しゅ考こう官かん). The word had lost any sense of dependency, but had regained the meaning of a person who was learning from another one. During the Song period 宋そう (960-1279), graduates of the palace examination even called themselves "disciples of the Son of Heaven" (tianzi mensheng 天子てんし門生もんせい). The practice of graduates to use the word mensheng was forbidden many times.

The word sheren 舍人とねり occurs in the ritual Classic Zhouli 周しゅう禮あや, where it is mentioned as an office caring for the grain supply of the imperial palace.

From the Han period on, the term sheren was used for minor officials in certain institutions. The Grand and Junior Mentor of the Heir Apparent (taizi taifu 太子たいし太ふとし傅でん, taizu shaofu 太子たいし少しょう傅でん) as well as the Empress and Princesses were served by sheren. Yet the word was at that time still used for private "housemen" of higher officials. General Wei Qing 衛まもる青あお (d. 105 BCE) for instance, kept one hundred retainers.

During the Wei 曹魏 (220-265), Jin 晉すすむ (265-420) and Southern and Northern dynasties periods, sheren were secretaries or drafters in the offices of princes, dukes and generals. Under the Liang dynasty 梁りょう (502-557), sheren secretaries in the office of dukes occupied rank 3 (see official rank), but under the Northern Wei 北きた魏たかし (386-534), just rank 7b.

During that period, the posts of drafters (zhongshu sheren 中書ちゅうしょ舍人とねり) or receptionists (zhongshu tongshi sheren 中書ちゅうしょ通事つうじ舍人とねり) in the Palace Secretariat (zhongshusheng 中書ちゅうしょ省しょう) were created, as well as that of secretaries of the Heir Apparent (taizi sheren 太子たいし舍人とねり).

The land quota system (zhantian zhi 占うらない田制たせい) of the Jin dynasty allowed members of eminent families (shizu 世よ族ぞく) to keep private, untaxed retainers (yin yishike 蔭かげ衣食いしょく客きゃく) with a number depending on the official rank (guanpin mendi 官かん品ひん門もん第だい) of the family. Officials or families of rank 6 and higher were allowed tax exemption for three retainers, those of ranks 7 and 8, for two, and families of rank 9 for one retainer.

The secretaries of central government agencies, princes and princesses had official rank 2-4. Emperor Xuanzong 唐から玄げん宗むね (r. 712-755) of the Tang dynasty 唐とう (618-907) abolished the posts of secretary of a princedom (wangfu sheren 王おう府ふ舍人とねり). In the eastern wing of the imperial palace, the Heir Apparent was served by four secretaries (zhong sheren 中ちゅう舍人とねり) of rank 6a belonging to the Right Secretariat of the Heir Apparent (you chunfang 右みぎ春はる坊ぼう). The staff of the imperial archive included secretaries for the imperial diary (qiju sheren 起居ききょ舍人とねり). Many of these offices were just nominal during the 9th and 10th centuries, yet endowed with a salary (jiluguan 寄よせ祿ろく官かん). The terms zhongshu sheren and tongshi sheren were used until the end of the imperial period, for instance, for petty officials in the Grand Secretariat (neige 內閣).