zhongshusheng 中書ちゅうしょ省しょう, the Palace Secretariat

The Palace Secretariat (zhongshusheng 中書ちゅうしょ省しょう) was one of highest institutions of the central government in early imperial times. It was created during the Former Han period 前漢ぜんかん (206 BCE-8 CE) and abolished by the founder of the Ming dynasty 明あきら (1368-1644). During the Song 宋そう (960-1279) and Yuan 元もと (1279-1368) periods, the Palace Secretariat was the core of the central government.

Emperor Wu 漢かん武たけ帝みかど (r. 141-87 BCE) of the Han dynasty desired to strengthen his authority. For handling the huge amount of documents, the chief steward for writing (shangshu 尚書しょうしょ) was the crucial person. He forwarded documents to the inner palace with the help of court eunuchs, the so-called palace secretaries (zhong shangshu 中ちゅう尚書しょうしょ or zhongshu 中書ちゅうしょ), who were concurrently receptionists (yezhe 謁者), and therefore also called *secretary-receptionists (zhongshu yezhe 中書ちゅうしょ謁者). This organization was soon standardized, and transformed into an office, headed by a Secretariat Director (zhongshu ling 中書ちゅうしょ令れい), who was assisted by a Vice Director (zhongshu puye [!] 中書ちゅうしょ仆射). Both persons had considerable influence on political decisions, as seen in the biographies of the eunuchs Hong Gong 弘恭ひろゆき (d. 47 BCE), Shi Xian 石せき顯あらわ (d. 33 BCE) and Lao Liang 牢ろう梁はり. Emperor Cheng 漢かん成なり帝みかど (r. 33-7 BCE) amended this shortcoming by giving the two posts to state officials instead of to court eunuchs. Yet the influence of the Imperial Secretariat (shangshutai 尚書しょうしょ臺だい) on the central administration persisted.

The warlord Cao Cao 曹操そうそう (155-220), ennobled as king of Wei 魏ぎ, created a parallel state structure for his quasi-autonomous kingdom, and took this chance to make a rearrangement concerning the secretariats. He created the post of director of the palace library (bishu ling 祕書ひしょ令れい), who handled the flow of documents from the chief steward for writing to the emperor. Cao Cao's son, Emperor Wen 魏ぎ文ぶん帝みかど (r. 220-226) of the Wei dynasty 曹魏 (220-265), created the Palace Secretariat (zhongshu sheng), which was headed by a Secretariat Supervisor (zhongshu jian 中書ちゅうしょ監かん) and a Director (zhongshu ling). They were assisted by several *inner secretarial court gentlemen (zhongshu lang 中書ちゅうしょ郎ろう). The emperor thus relied on two secretariats, namely the outer Imperial Secretariat (shangshutai), and the inner Palace Secretariat (zhongshusheng). The ranks of the personnel of the Palace Secretariat were lower than that of the Imperial Secretariat, but the former worked closer with the emperor, and therefore had some influence on the sovereign, even more as the Palace Secretariat took over the drafting of edicts (zhaoling 詔みことのり令れい) – and thus also over the content.

With the creation of the Palace Secretariat by Cao Cao, the paperwork of the central government was thus organized in the Three Departments (sansheng 三省みつよし), namely the Palace Secretariat (zhongshusheng), the Imperial Secretariat (shangshusheng 尚書しょうしょ省しょう), and the Chancellery (menxiasheng 門下もんか省しょう). This arrangement was imitated by the Jin dynasty 晉すすむ (265-420), and the Southern and Northern Dynasties 南北なんぼく朝あさ (300~600), with the only exception of the Northern Zhou 北きた周あまね (557-581), who did not use the institution of the Palace Secretariat.

The relation with the imperial library was terminated by Emperor Hui 晉すすむ惠めぐみ帝みかど (r. 290-306) of the Jin dynasty. He also liberated the Palace Secretariat from the work of compiling the imperial diaries (qijuzhu 起居ききょ注ちゅう) and historiographical records, a work carried out by an editorial director (zhuzuolang 著作ちょさく郎ろう). The drafting of public documents was realized by a court gentleman with the title of tongshilang 通事つうじ郎ろう (lit. "transmission officer"), who was instructed in oral consultation with the Director. In earlier times the drafting of documents had been realized by the Directors themselves. Important edicts therefore came from the hand of Liu Fang 劉りゅう放ひ (d. 250) during the Wei or Zhang Hua 張ちょう華はな (232-300) during the Western Jin period 西にし晉すすむ (265-316). During the Eastern Jin period 東あずま晉すすむ (317-420), these reception and issuance of documents was transferred to the Department of Scholarly Counsellors (sanjisheng 散ち騎き省しょう) and the Western Department (xisheng 西にし省しょう) under the Chancellery, and the posts of the Palace Secretariat were left vacant.

The Southern Dynasties 南朝なんちょう (420-589) revived the Palace Secretariat. The post of Director was often filled by princes or members of high-ranking families, and the composition of edicts was therefore carried out by some retainers of them. From the Southern Dynasties period on this duty therefore fell in the hands of the drafters. Many of them came from families of lower status. This changed the power structure and created new channels of influence on court politics. Zhou She 周しゅう舍しゃ (469-524) or Zhu Yi 朱しゅ異こと (483-549), for instance, were drafters which had considerable weight on the decisions of Emperor Wu 梁りょう武たけし帝みかど (r. 502-549) of the Liang dynasty 梁りょう (502-557). Close to the end of the Southern Dynasties period, the position of Director was just a honorific one.

The situation was different in the Northern Dynasties 北朝ほくちょう (386~581). Directors like Gao Yun 高だか允まこと (390-487), Gao Lü 高だか閭 (d. 502), Xing Shao 邢邵 (496-561) or Wei Shou 魏ぎ收おさむ (507-572) were also professional writers. The duties of the Palace Secretariat and its prevalence over the Imperial Secretariat changed over time and depended from the preferences of each individual emperor. In some cases, the Secretariat was even responsible for court entertainment and judicial supervision.

The Sui dynasty 隋ずい (581-618) and the early Tang dynasty 唐とう (618-907) called the Palace Secretariat neishisheng 內史省しょう or neishusheng 內書省しょう. Emperor Gaozong 唐から高祖こうそ (r. 618-626) used the term "Western Terrace" (xitai 西臺にしだい) for it, Empress Wu 武則たけのり天てん (regent 684-690, ruler 690-704) called it "Phoenix Tower" (fengge 鳳おおとり閣かく), and Emperor Xuanzong 唐から玄げん宗むね (r. 712-755) chose the name "Department of the Purple Mystery" (ziweisheng 紫むらさき微ほろ省しょう).

The Sui dynasty replaced the Secretariat Supervisor by a second Director, called zhongshu ling, neishi ling 內史令れい, ziwei ling 紫むらさき微ほろ令れい (temporary use only) or youxiang 右みぎ相しょう "right counsellor". The court gentlemen were from the Sui period on also known as zhongshu shilang 中書ちゅうしょ侍さむらい郎ろう.

The Tang reduced the number of court gentlemen from four to two. They were assisted by several drafters (zhongshu sheren 中書ちゅうしょ舍人とねり) and secretarial receptionists (tongshi sheren 通事つうじ舍人とねり, also called tongshi yezhe 通事つうじ謁者). The Sui introduced the lower office of imperial diarist (qiju sheren 起居ききょ舍人とねり) for the compilation of the imperial diary, and the Tang added to these the posts of right rectifier of omissions (you buque 右みぎ補ほ闕) and right reminder (you shiyi 右みぎ拾遺しゅうい; the corresponding "left" persons worked in the Chancellery), who were responsible for critical proof-reading of documents.

The duty of the Palace Secretariat was to read incoming memorials to the throne, to answer questions by the emperor, and to draft the ruler's reactions, i.e. imperial edicts. From the Tang period on, the drafters also took over the duty to ask critical questions if cases were difficult to decide. The secretarial receptionist cared for the communication of documents inside the palace and the summoning of state officials to be interviewed.

Under the Sui dynasty, some Directors or Vice Directors even acted concurrently as Counsellors-in-Chief (zaixiang 宰相さいしょう), and during the Tang, the Director was master of court assemblies, and thus also controlled the Counsellor. Many Counsellors started their career in the Palace Secretariat.

It was common use that political decisions were deliberated in the Administration Chamber (zhengshitang 政事せいじ堂どう). During these conferences the emperor consulted with the two directors of the Palace Secretariat and the heads of the Imperial Secretariat and the Chancellery. The function of this committee was to give counsels the emperor (zaixiang 宰相さいしょう). The court gentlemen also participated in in consultations. The lowest stratum of the Secretariat's staff were secretaries (zhushu 主おも書しょ), scribes (zhushi 主事しゅじ), clerks (lingshi 令れい史し), clerical scribes (shulingshi 書しょ令れい史し), *writers (nengshu 能書のうがき), translators (fanshu yiyu 蕃しげる書しょ譯語やくご), mounted couriers (chengyi 乘の驛えき), proclamation carriers (chuanzhi 傳つて制せい), managing clerks (tingzhang 亭ちん長ちょう), clerks (zhanggu 掌てのひら固かた), case makers (zhuang zhichijiang 裝そう制せい敕匠), case repairers (xiubu zhichijiang 修補しゅうほ制せい敕匠), envelope keepers (zhanghan 掌てのひら函はこ), file clerks (zhang'an 掌てのひら案あん), etc.

Table 1. Staff of the Palace Secretariat (Tang period)

中書ちゅうしょ令れい	zhongshu ling	Directors of the Palace Secretariat	2
中書ちゅうしょ侍さむらい郎ろう	zhongshu shilang	Court Gentlemen (Vice Directors) of the Palace Secretariat	2
中書ちゅうしょ舍人とねり	zhongshu sheren	Drafters of the Palace Secretariat	6
主おも書しょ	zhushu	secretaries	4
主事しゅじ	zhushi	scribes	4
令れい史し	lingshi	clerks	25
書しょ令れい史し	shulingshi	clerical scribes	50
傳つて制せい	chuanzhi	proclamation carriers	10
亭ちん長ちょう	tingzhang	managing clerks	18
掌てのひら固かた	zhanggu	clerks	24
修補しゅうほ制せい敕匠	xiubu zhichijiang	case repairers	50
掌てのひら函はこ	zhanghan	envelope keepers	20
掌てのひら案あん	zhang'an	file clerks	20
右みぎ散ち騎き常つね侍さむらい	you sanji changshi	right cavaliers attendant-in-ordinary	2
右みぎ補ほ闕	you buque	right rectifiers of omissions	2
右みぎ拾遺しゅうい	you shiyi	right reminders	2
起居ききょ舍人とねり	qiju sheren	diarists	2
通事つうじ舍人とねり	tongshi sheren	receptionists	16
Source: Tang liudian 唐から六ろく典てん, 9

In the second half of the Tang period, the factual power fell into the hands of local military commissioners (fanzhen 藩はん鎮). Some of them were granted the honorific title of Director or Vice Director of the Palace Secretariat, in order to give them a higher status. In consequence, this custom deprived the title of Director of its real value. At the same time, the Hanlin Academy 翰林院かんりんいん gained importance as an institution where court documents were processed. Documents were drafted by Hanlin academicians (Hanlin xueshi 翰林かんりん學士がくし), which had an excellent education in language and literature. The Hanlin Academy, and clerks in the newly created eunuch Palace Secretariat (shumiyuan 樞密院すうみついん, founded in 765) step by step eclipsed the drafters of the Palace Secretariat. The novel institutions allowed the emperor to issue edicts without prior consultation of the secretariats in the Administration Chamber.

When the Song dynasty 宋そう (960-1279) was founded, the Palace Secretariat was deprived of its status and became an institution outside the imperial palace, like the Chancellery. Its function was reduced to the processing of certain less important documents, like memorials presented on a special occasion (cewen 冊さつ文ぶん), resubmitted documents (fuzou 覆くつがえ奏そう) or lists of official examinations (kaozhang 考こう帳ちょう).

The office of the Counsellor-in-Chief was called Secretariat-Chancellery (zhongshu menxia 中書ちゅうしょ門下もんか, short zhongshu 中書ちゅうしょ) or Administration Chamber (zhengshitang). It was located inside the Imperial Palace, and had nothing to do with the former Palace Secretariat. The latter had no director any more, and even the title of drafter (jilu guan 寄よせ祿ろく官かん) was purely honorific. Their duty was taken over by the drafters (zhizhigao 知ち制せい誥) of the new Document Drafting Office (sherenyuan 舍人とねり院いん).

A reform during the Yuanfeng reign-period 元もと豐ゆたか (1078-1085) divided the Secretariat-Chancellery into three departments, and thus restored the original situation, in which the Palace Secretariat received edicts of the emperor, the Chancellery processed resubmitted documents, and the Department of State Affairs acted as executing agency. The original functions were restored and the Document Drafting Office transformed into the Secretariat Rear Section (zhongshu housheng 中書ちゅうしょ後ご省しょう). The post of Director (zhongshu ling) remained just honorific, and the guidance of the Palace Secretariat was taken over by the Right Vice Director of the Imperial Secretariat (shangshu you puye 尚書しょうしょ右みぎ仆射, also called youcheng 右みぎ丞すすむ), who was concurrently Court Gentleman of the Palace Secretariat (zhongshu shilang 中書ちゅうしょ侍さむらい郎ろう). A second Court Gentleman of the Palace Secretariat managed the institution and took part in court consultations. The Rear Section was managed by one of the Secretariat Drafters (zhongshu sheren). The Left Vice Director (zuo puye 左ひだり仆射, also called zuocheng 左ひだり丞すすむ) and Court Gentleman of the Chancellery (menxia shilang 門下もんか侍さむらい郎ろう) acted concurrently as Counsellor-in-Chief. Decisions in policy were made by the Counsellor, before the respective edicts and documents were drafted and issued.

The increasing involvement of the secretariats into the decision of political affairs can be seen in the creation of eight new sections (fang 房ぼう) that reflected the Six Ministries (liubu 六ろく部ぶ): the sections for personnel (lifang 吏房), revenue (hufang 戶と房ぼう), military and rites (bing-lifang 兵へい禮れい房ぼう, later separated), justice (xingfang 刑けい房ぼう), and works (gongfang 工房こうぼう), as well as the secretary's office (zhushifang 主事しゅじ房ぼう, reception of letters, later called kaichifang 開ひらき拆房), the section for personnel registers (banbufang 班はん簿ぼ房ぼう), and finally the proclamations archive (zhichiku 制せい敕庫). Around 1090 two new sections were created, namely the expediting office (cuiqufang 催驅房ぼう) and the office of inspection (dianjianfang 點檢てんけん房ぼう).

During the Southern Song period 南みなみ宋そう (1127-1279), the Palace Secretariat was again merged with the Chancellery. The Right Vice Director, concurrently Court Gentleman of the Palace Secretariat, was called Counsellor to the Right (you chengxiang 右みぎ丞相じょうしょう), and the term zhongshu shilang was changed to Vice Grand Counsellor (can zhizhengshi 參まいり知ち政事せいじ).

In the Liao empire 遼りょう (907-1125), the people of the Kitans dominated their Chinese subjects. The central administration was divided into two spheres, the Chinese one, and the Kitan one. For the organization of the latter, the Liao dynasty created a structure similar to the three Chinese departments. The Palace Secretariat was in the beginning called Department of Administration (zhengshisheng 政事せいじ省しょう). Its structure was the same as in the early Tang-period model. The posts of Director, Vice Director, and the drafters, were mostly held by Chinese.

The Jurchens, founders of the Jin dynasty 金きむ (1115-1234), chose a mixture of the Tang and the Song systems. Accordingly, the post of Director of the Palace Secretariat was occupied by the Right Counsellor of the Imperial Secretariat (shangshu you chengxiang 尚書しょうしょ右みぎ丞相じょうしょう). This person was subordinated to the Counsellor-in-Chief. The paperwork was not done by drafters, but by academicians. Emperor Wanyan Liang 完かん顏がお亮あきら (r. 1149-1160), Prince of Hailing 海うみ陵りょう王おう, therefore abolished the more or less vain institutions of the Palace Secretariat and the Chancellery, but retained the Imperial Secretariat as the highest institution of the state bureaucracy.

The Mongols had a particular kind of central administation. It stood under the guidance of a "seal holder", daruγがんまači (Ch. daluhuachi 達いたる魯花赤あか), who was responsible for administration and taxation. Paperwork was organized by scribes, bičikeči (biduchi 必闍赤あか). These were to master not just the Mongolian language, but also Uyghurian, Chinese and Persian. Their expertise corresponded to the growing need to specialize the administration of the territory Činggis Qaɣan (c. 1155-1227) had conquered, and they had influence on political decisions.

In 1231, during Ögödei's (r. 1229-1241) campaign to conquer Yunzhong 雲くも中ちゅう (today's Datong 大同だいどう, Shanxi), the Mongols learned more about the central administration of the Jurchen empire. The scribes Yelü Chucai 耶律楚すわえ材ざい (1190-1244), Nianhe Zhongshan 粘ねば合ごう重山かさねやま (d. 1238) and Zhenhai 鎮海 were made Director, Left Counsellor (zuo chengxiang), and Right Counsellor (you chengxiang), respectively, of the Palace Secretariat, and the staff of scribes was transformed into that of regular drafters of the Secretariat.

In 1260 Qubilai Qaɣan (r. 1260-1294) decided to adopt the Chinese institution of the Palace Secretariat as the central administrative office. The Imperial Secretariat was abolished in 1292 (revived 1309-1311). The structure followed the model of the Jin empire. The post of Director was filled by an imperial prince, or left vacant. The real work was done by a left and right counsellor (you chengxiang, zuo chengxiang, the former being senior to the latter, unlike in China, where left was over right), or just by the Right Counsellor. The next level of officials were four managers of governmental affairs (pingzhang zhengshi 平たいら章あきら政事せいじ) and a right and left aide (you cheng 右みぎ丞すすむ, zuo cheng 左ひだり丞すすむ). This group of officials was called "state counsellors" (zaizhi 宰おさむ執と). Below these persons, there were four consultants in the Secretariat (canyi zhongshusheng shi 參議さんぎ中書ちゅうしょ省しょう事ごと) who were responsible for the paperwork, but also took part in decisions. The two sections, left and right, were further supported by directors (langzhong 郎ろう中ちゅう), vice directors (yuanwailang 員外いんがい郎ろう) and office managers (dushi 都と事ごと). The Palace Secretariat controlled the Six Ministries and was thus also structurally the heart of the government.

In the course of the conquest of China, the Mongols created mobile Palace Secretariats (xing zhongshusheng 行くだり中書ちゅうしょ省しょう) which took over the administration of certain regions of the empire. The regions of what is today Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei and Inner Mongolia were directly subordinated to the central Palace Secretariat. From these institutions, the provinces (sheng 省しょう) evolved after the foundation of the Ming dynasty.

The Ming took over the Yuan system, but in 1380, Emperor Taizu 明太めんたい祖そ (r. 1368-1398), suspicious about the loyalty of Counsellor Hu Weiyong 胡えびす惟おもんみ庸いさお (d. 1380), decided to abolish the Palace Secretariat altogether, and had all institutions directly subordinated to the emperor's power. The Secretariat was never revived, but its functions were later replaced by other institutions, like the Hanlin Academy, or the Grand Secretariat (neige 内閣ないかく).