Regency

Regency (shezheng 攝政せっしょう) was a legal means to hold up government affairs for a child emperor (nian you 年とし幼よう) or if an emperor was seriously ill. It was executed by one or several persons.

The paradigm of a regent was the Duke of Zhou 周しゅう公こう, who during the early Western Zhou period 西にし周あまね (11th cent.-770 BCE) reigned (jianzuo er zhi 踐阼而治 "he rose the steps [to the throne] and arranged [political matters]", from Liji 禮れい記き, ch. Wenwang shizi 文ぶん王おう世子せいし) for the young ruler King Cheng 周しゅう成しげる王おう (trad. r. 1116-1079 BCE).

In his book Xinyu 新語しんご, Lu Jia 陸りく賈 (240-170) explained that a regent (fuzheng 輔政) was someone with a "high standing like a Saint" (yi shengren ju gaochu shang 以聖人じん居きょ高だか處しょ上じょう) and used to govern with "kindheartedness and righteousness" (yi ren yi wei chao 以仁義じんぎ為ため巢す) in order to steer through dangers "with the stave of a Saint and worthy" (yi shengxian wei zhang 以聖賢かしこ為ため杖つえ). A good regent was a person of softness, warmth, and austerity.

In fact, contemporaries of the Duke charged him with attempted usurpation. His regency initiated a debate over the role of ministers in the Zhou kingdom, in which the Duke of Zhou gave privileges to ministers over kings, while the Duke of Shao 召公 supported the king's prerogative to rule as the Son of Heaven (Shaugnessy 1993).

There were indeed several cases in history, when a regent replaced the ruling dynasty, for instance, Wang Mang 王おう莽 (45 BCE-23 CE), who overthrew the Former Han 前漢ぜんかん (206 BCE-8 CE) and founded the Xin dynasty 新しん (8-23 CE), or Cao Pi 曹丕 (187-226), who ended the Later Han 後ご漢かん (25-220 CE) and founded the Wei dynasty 魏ぎ (220-265).

In the early imperial age, the Empress Dowager (huanghou 皇后こうごう), the widowed primary consort of a deceased ruler, took normally over regency. The most famous examples are Empress Dowager Lü 呂りょ太ふとし后きさき (d. 180 BCE) from the early Former Han, Empress Wu Zetian 武則たけのり天てん (regent 684-690, ruler 690-704) from the Tang 唐とう (618-907), and Empress Dowager Cixi 慈禧太ふとし后きさき (1835-1908) from the late Qing 清きよし (1644-1911) period.

Yet there are also plenty of examples when brothers or other close relatives of empresses dowager took over regency, particularly during the Han period, as for instance, Huo Guang 霍光 (d. 68 BCE) or He Jin 何なん進しん (d. 189 CE).

During the early Qing, a consortium of regents run the state during the youth of the Shunzhi 順治じゅんじ帝みかど (r. 1643-1661) and the Kangxi 康やすし熙帝 (r. 1661-1722) emperors. The most famous of these regents were Dorgon (Ch. Duo'ergun 多た爾なんじ袞, 1612-1650) and Oboi (Ch. Aobai 鰲拜, c. 1610-1669). Zaifeng 載の灃 (1883–1951), Prince Chun 醇あつし親王しんのう, reigned for his son, the three-year old Xuantong Emperor 宣せん統すべ帝みかど (r. 1908-1912).

When a young emperor came of adulthood he "personally took over the government" (qinzheng 親政しんせい).

The term shezheng was still used in the Republican era (1912-1949), when the cabinet (neige 內閣) took over the executive of the post of President (da zongtong 大だい總統そうとう), for instance, Prime Minister (guowu zongli 國務こくむ總理そうり) Gao Lingwei 高だか凌しのげ霨 (1870-1940) in 1923 and Prime Minister Gu Weijun 顧維鈞ひとし (Wellington Koo, 1888-1985) in 1927.

The regency of an empress dowager was called linchao chengzhi 臨朝稱しょう制せい "face the court and pronounce edicts" or linchao tingzheng 臨朝聽政 "face the court and listen to governmental affairs", even if this expression is normally used for an active ruler. The commentator to the official dynastic history Hanshu 漢書かんしょ, Yan Shigu 顏かお師し古いにしえ (581-645), explains that there were two types of documents issued by an emperor, namely edicts or decrees (zhishu 制せい書しょ), and proclamations or announcements (zhaoshu 詔書しょうしょ). A reigning empress dowager was actually not allowed to pronounce edicts. This argument is directed (unless Yan's argument is wrong) against Empress Dowager Lü from the early Former Han period, but would also be applicable to Empress Dowager Liu 劉りゅう太ふとし后きさき (Empress Zhangxian 章あきら獻けんじ后きさき, 968-1033), who reigned "by pronouncing edicts" (linchao chengzhi) for the Song 宋そう (960-1279) emperor Renzong 宋そう仁ひとし宗そう (r. 1022-1063).

The regency of an empress dowager was a common and legal means of securing the regular process of day-to-day government. During the late Qing period, Empress Dowagers Ci'an 慈安太ふとし后きさき (1837-1881) and Cixi, primary and secondary consorts of the Xianfeng Emperor 咸豐帝みかど (r. 1850-1861), were several times formally invited to take over regency for a young emperor, first for Cixi's son, the Tongzhi Emperor 同どう治ち帝みかど (r. 1861-1874), and then two times for her nephew, the Guangxu Emperor 光こう緒いとぐち帝みかど (r. 1874-1908). Yet in practice, the daily business of government was first carried out by a consortium of Eight Regents (guming ba da chen 顧命八はち大臣だいじん) consisting of Princes and ministers. Yet this consortium was soon dissolved, and the Princes Gong 恭きょう親王しんのう (I Hin 奕訢, 1833-1898) and Chun 醇あつし郡ぐん王おう (I Huwan 奕譞, 1840-1891, both being uncles of the emperor) took over regency.

During the childhood of the Guangxu Emperor, statutes regulated the female regency (Taihou chuilian zhangcheng 太ふとし后きさき垂たれ簾すだれ章程しょうてい). As the regency was nominally carried out by the two Empresses Dowager, the circumstance was called "regency by the two palaces" (lianggong tingzheng 兩りょう宮みや聽政). In 1881, Empress Dowager Ci'an passed away, allowing Cixi to reign alone until 1888. Ten years later, the Emperor's reforms (see Hundred Days' Reform) were ended by a conservative coup d'état, and Cixi again took over regency in the form of "instructive government" (xunzheng 訓くん政せい).

The formalities to be observed were similar during the Song period, when Empress Meng 孟はじめ氏し (primary consort of Emperor Zhezong 宋そう哲あきら宗そう, r. 1085-1100) was asked to reign for two short intervals in 1127 and 1129. She played an important role in securing the accession to the throne of Emperor Gaozong 宋そう高だか宗むね (r. 1127-1162) of the Southern Song 南みなみ宋そう (1127-1279).

Since the Tang period it was common that reigning Empress Dowagers sat behind a bamboo curtain (lian 簾すだれ) during court sessions and audiences. The ususal term for a female regency is therefore chuilian tingzheng 垂たれ簾すだれ聽政 or chuilian tingjue 垂たれ簾すだれ聽決 "listening to and deciding over policial affairs from behind the curtain". Empress Wu Zetian was perhaps the first female regent who sat behind a curtain hanging down from behind the throne (yuzuo hou 御座ぎょざ後ご). Even if her husband, Emperor Gaozong 唐とう高だか宗むね (r. 649-683), was ruling actively, she assisted him so much that she was called the "Second Holy [Ruler]" (ersheng 二に聖ひじり). She was the first and only female regent who eventually took over the position of the emperor.

The "ceremony of the hanging curtain" (chuilian yi 垂たれ簾すだれ儀ぎ) was an official form of congratulatory rites (jiali 嘉よしみ禮れい, see five rites). At the time of the enthronement of the Tongzhi Emperor, the curtain was apparently just a relict from ancient times. Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi received documents and decided in front of the curtain, and not behind. Quite interestingly, it was the Guangxu Emperor who was hidden behind a satin screen (shaping 紗しゃ屏へい) with the two regents as long as he had not taken over government affairs. Each document was formally submitted in three copies, so the emperor and the two female regents had formally one at hand.

The term jianguo 監かん國こく "supervisor of the state" (see also liushou 留守るす, resident regents) was mainly used for temporary regents overseeing government business when the emperor was outside the capital, for instance, during a military campaign or on an inspection or hunting tour. The function was usually carried out by the Heir Apparent or a high dignitary, in case of the Emperor Chengzu's 明成めいせい祖そ (r. 1402-1424) campaign in 1410 even by the Imperial Grandson (huang zhangsun 皇すめらぎ長ちょう孫まご) Zhu Danji 朱しゅ瞻基, the eventual Emperor Xuanzong 明あかり宣せん宗むね (r. 1426-1435). The term was first used in the history book Guoyu 國語こくご (ch. Jinyu 晉すすむ語ご 1) and the Classic Zuozhuan 左ひだり傳でん (Mingong 閔公 2).

The word zhizheng 執政しっせい, lit. "hold the government" was an ancient expression for control over government affairs by an individual official and his clients. This was not illegal, but might have the connotation of unjust dominance over potential rivals. The word is even used as a neutral term in the sense of "to execute government affairs". One example for a negative use is the abuse of power by court eunuchs during the Later Han period. They "dominated" the government without having government positions. The word zhizheng was used as a verbal phrase as well as for the persons in power.

During the Song period, zhizheng became an official designation of a function and was a general reference to vice grand cousellors (fuxiang 副ふく相そう) serving in the Administration Chamber (zhengshi tang 政治せいじ堂どう) where the most important central government decisions were made; all held primary appointments in the Secretariat-Chancellery (zhongshu menxia sheng 中書ちゅうしょ門下もんか省しょう) or the Bureau of Military Affairs (shumiyuan 樞密院すうみついん). (Hucker 1985: 939). The word designated all high officials of the inner circle of the government – apart from the Counsellor-in-chief (zaixiang 宰相さいしょう), namely Vice Grand Counsellors (can zhizheng shi 參まいり知ち政事せいじ), Military Affairs Commissioners (shumishi 樞くるる密使みっし), Vice Military Affairs Commissioners (shumi fushi 樞密すうみつ副使ふくし), Notaries of the Bureau of Military Affairs (qianshu shumiyuan shi 簽書樞密院すうみついん事ごと), Administrators of the Bureau of Military Affairs (zhi shumiyuan shi 知ち樞密院すうみついん事ごと), Associate Administrators (tongzhi shumiyuan shi 同どう知ち樞密院すうみついん事ごと), Left and Right Aides in the Imperial Secretariat (shangshu zuocheng 尚書しょうしょ左ひだり丞すすむ, shangshu youcheng 尚書しょうしょ右みぎ丞すすむ), Vice Directors in the Palace Secretariat (zhongshu shilang 中書ちゅうしょ侍さむらい郎ろう), and Vice Directors in the Chancellery (menxia shilang 門下もんか侍さむらい郎ろう).

The Jurchen-Jin dynasty 金きむ (1115-1234) used the word as an alternative name for the Left and Right Aides in the Imperial Secretariat and the Vice Grand Councellors, and the Yuan 元もと (1279-1368) as a synonym of the Left and Right Aides of the Palace Secretariat (zhongshu zuo cheng 中書ちゅうしょ左ひだり丞すすむ, zhongshu youcheng 中書ちゅうしょ右みぎ丞すすむ). All of these posts were defined as "assistants" to the Counsellor-in-chief.

The word zhizheng was still used in 1924, when the warlord Duan Qirui 段だん祺瑞 (1865-1936) created a provisional cabinet (linshi zhengfu 臨時りんじ政府せいふ), in which he held the post of "executive head" (zhizheng 執政しっせい).

The term zhuanzheng 專せん政せい has two meanings. The stronger sense is that an individual person and his clansmen dominate political affairs and the executive, like the family Luan 欒 in the state of Jin 晉すすむ, the Three Huan families 三さん桓 in Lu 魯 during the Spring and Autumn period 春秋しゅんじゅう (770-5th cent. BCE), or Wang Mang during the late Former Han period. This meaning has a slight connotation of illegality, even if the dominant officials held their functions rightfully. In modern Chinese therefore, the word zhuanzheng means "dictatorship". In a weaker sense, the term zhuanzheng just means "to act as an executive, to reign" (same as zhizheng 執政しっせい). The Chinese term for an usurpation or illegal interference into the executive was shanzheng 擅政.