A Wisdom King (Sanskrit: विद्याराज; IAST: Vidyārāja, Chinese:
Whereas the Sanskrit name is translated literally as "wisdom / knowledge king(s)," the term vidyā in Vajrayana Buddhism is also specifically used to denote mantras;[1] the term may thus also be rendered "mantra king(s)."[2][3] Vidyā is translated in Chinese with the character
The female counterparts of Wisdom Kings are known as Wisdom Queens (Sanskrit (IAST): Vidyārājñī, Chinese:
Overview
editDevelopment
editVidyārājas, as their name suggests, are originally conceived of as the guardians and personifications of esoteric wisdom (vidyā), namely mantras and dharanis. They were seen as embodying the mystic power contained in these sacred utterances.[2][4]
During the early stages of esoteric (Vajrayana) Buddhism, many of the deities that would become known as vidyārājas (a term that only came into use around the late 7th-early 8th century[5]) were mainly seen as attendants of bodhisattvas who were invoked for specific ends such as the removal of misfortune and obstacles to enlightenment. They personified certain attributes of these bodhisattvas such as their wisdom or the power of their voices and were held to perform various tasks such as gathering together sentient beings to whom the bodhisattva preaches, subjugating unruly elements, or protecting adherents of Buddhism.[6] Eventually, these divinities became objects of veneration in their own right; no longer necessarily paired with a bodhisattva, they became considered as the manifestations of the bodhisattvas themselves and/or of buddhas, who are believed to assume terrifying forms as a means to save sentient beings out of compassion for them.[7] A belief prevalent in the Japanese tradition known as the sanrinjin (
The evolution of the vidyārāja will be illustrated here by the deity Yamāntaka, one of the earliest Buddhist wrathful deities. In the 6th century text Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa, Yamāntaka is portrayed as the oath-bound servant of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī who assembles all beings from across the world to hear the Buddha's preaching and vanquishes (and converts) those who are hostile to Buddhism; at the same time, Yamāntaka is also the personification of Mañjuśrī's dharani, the benefits of which are identical to his abilities.[12] He was also commonly depicted in statuary along with Mañjuśrī as a diminutive yaksha-like attendant figure.[13]
Later, as Yamāntaka and similar subordinates of various bodhisattvas (e.g. Hayagrīva, who was associated with Avalokiteśvara) became fully independent deities, they began to be portrayed by themselves and increasingly acquired iconographic attributes specific to each. Yamāntaka for instance is commonly shown with six heads, arms, and legs and riding or standing on a buffalo mount.[14] The status and function of these deities have shifted from being minor emissaries who gather together and intimidate recalcitrant beings to being intimately involved in the primary task of esoteric Buddhism: the transformation of passions and ignorance (avidyā) into compassion and wisdom.[15] As a result of this development, the relationship between Mañjuśrī and Yamāntaka was recontextualized such that Yamāntaka is now considered to be the incarnation of Mañjuśrī himself (so the Mañjuśrī-nāma-samgīti).[14] Eventually, in the sanrinjin interpretation of Japanese esoteric Buddhism, both Yamāntaka and Mañjuśrī - under the name 'Vajratīkṣṇa' (Japanese:
Other Wisdom Kings followed a more or less similar development. Hayagrīva, for example, was originally the horse-headed incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu which was adopted into Buddhism as Avalokiteśvara's attendant (although unlike the Hindu Hayagrīva, the Buddhist figure was never portrayed with a horse's head, instead being depicted like Yamāntaka as a yaksha who may have a miniature horse head emerging from his hair).[20] Eventually, as Hayagrīva increasingly rose to prominence, the distinction between him and his superior became increasingly blurred so that he ultimately turned into one of Avalokiteśvara's many guises in both China and Japan.[21] One of the more famous vidyārājas, Acala (Acalanātha), was originally an acolyte or messenger of the buddha Vairocana before he was interpreted as Vairocana's fierce aspect or kyōryōrin-shin in the Japanese tradition.[22] (In Nepal and Tibet, meanwhile, he is instead identified as the incarnation of either Mañjuśrī or the buddha Akṣobhya.[23][24][25][26])
Iconography
editThe iconography of Buddhist wrathful deities are usually considered to be derived from both yaksha imagery and Shaivite iconography, specifically from the wrathful forms of the Hindu god Shiva (e.g. Bhairava).[27][28]
Wisdom Kings are usually represented as fierce-looking, often with blue or black skin and multiple heads, arms, and legs. They hold various weapons in their hands and are sometimes adorned with skulls, snakes or animal skins and wreathed in flames. This fiery aura is symbolically interpreted as the fire that purifies the practitioner and transforms one's passions into awakening, the so-called "fire samadhi" (
Certain vidyārājas bear attributes that reflect the historical rivalry between Hinduism and Buddhism. For instance, the Wisdom King Trailokyavijaya is shown defeating and trampling on the deva Maheśvara (one of the Buddhist analogues to Shiva) and his consort Umā (Pārvatī).[30] A commentary on the Mahavairocana Tantra by the Tang monk Yi Xing meanwhile attributes the taming of Maheśvara to another vidyārāja, Acala.[31] Acala himself is sometimes shown trampling on an elephant-headed demon/deity who may share a common origin with the Hindu Ganesha named Vighnarāja (the "Lord of Obstacles") in Tibetan art.[32]
List of Wisdom Kings
editThe Five Wisdom Kings
editIn Chinese and Japanese (Shingon and Tendai) esoteric Buddhism, the Five Great Wisdom Kings (
- Acala / Acalanātha (
不動明王 ; Jp. Fudō Myōō; Ch.不動明王 , Bùdòng Míngwáng) - Manifestation of Mahāvairocana, associated with the center - Trailokyavijaya (
降 三 世 明王 ; Jp. Gōzanze Myōō; Ch. Xiángsānshì Míngwáng) - Manifestation of Akṣobhya, associated with the east - Kuṇḍali / Amṛtakuṇḍalin (
軍 荼利明王 , Jp. Gundari Myōō; Ch. Jūntúlì Míngwáng) - Manifestation of Ratnasambhava, associated with the south - Yamāntaka (
大 威徳 明王 ; Jp. Daiitoku Myōō; Ch. Dàwēidé Míngwáng) - Manifestation of Amitābha, associated with the west - Vajrayakṣa (
金剛夜叉 明王 , Jp. Kongōyasha Myōō; Ch. Jīngāng Yèchā Míngwáng) - Manifestation of Amoghasiddhi, associated with the north in the Shingon school
Vajrayakṣa or Ucchuṣma
(north) |
||
Yamāntaka
(west) |
Acala
(center) |
Trailokyavijaya
(east) |
Kuṇḍali
(south) |
The Eight Wisdom Kings
editIn Chinese Buddhism, the Eight Great Wisdom Kings (
The Eight Wisdom Kings, with exceptions in certain lists, are usually defined as:[36]
- Acala - Manifestation of the bodhisattva Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkambhin, associated with the north-east
- Kuṇḍali - Manifestation of the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha, associated with the north-west
- Trailokyavijaya - Manifestation of the bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi, associated with the south-east
- Mahācakra (
大輪 明王 ; Ch. Dàlún Míngwáng) - Manifestation of the bodhisattva Maitreya, associated with the south-west - Padanakṣipa (
步 擲明王 ; Ch. Bùzhì Míngwáng) - Manifestation of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra, associated with the north - Aparājita (
無能 勝 明王 ; Ch. Wúnéngshēng Míngwáng) - Manifestation of the bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha, associated with the south - Yamāntaka - Manifestation of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, associated with the east
- Hayagrīva (
馬頭觀音 ; Ch. Mǎtóu Guānyīn) - Manifestation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin), associated with the west
Kuṇḍali
(north-west) |
Padanakṣipa
(north) |
Acala
(north-east) |
Hayagrīva
(west) |
Yamāntaka
(east) | |
Mahācakra
(south-west) |
Aparājita
(south) |
Trailokyavijaya
(south-east) |
The Ten Wisdom Kings
editAnother grouping found in certain Chinese depictions is the Ten Great Wisdom Kings (
One version of the list of Ten Wisdom Kings are as follows:[36]
- Acala - Manifestation of Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkambhin
- Trailokyavijaya - Manifestation of Vajrapani
- Mahācakra - Manifestation of Maitreya
- Padanakṣipa - Manifestation of Samantabhadra
- Aparājita - Manifestation of Kṣitigarbha
- Yamāntaka - Manifestation of Amitābha
- Hayagrīva - Manifestation of Avalokiteśvara
- Vajrahāsa (
大 笑 明王 ; Ch. Dàxiào Míngwáng) - Manifestation of Ākāśagarbha - Ucchuṣma (
穢 跡 金剛 明王 ; Ch. Huìjì Jīngāng Míngwáng, lit. "Vajra Being of Impure Traces") - Manifestation of Śakyamuni - Ucchuṣma (?) (
火 頭 金剛 明王 ; Ch. Huǒtóu Jīngāng Míngwáng, lit. "Fire-Headed Vajra Being") - Manifestation of Mahāvairocana[a]
Another version of the list identifies the ten Kings with different buddhas and bodhisattvas:
- Acala - Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkambhin
- Kuṇḍali - Amitābha
- Trailokyavijaya - Vajrapāṇi
- Mahācakra - Maitreya
- Padanakṣipa - Samantabhadra
- Aparājita - Kṣitigarbha
- Yamāntaka - Mañjuśrī
- Hayagrīva - Avalokiteśvara
- Vajrahāsa - Ākāśagarbha
- Mahābala (
大力 明王 ; Ch, Dàlì Míngwáng) - Śakyamuni
-
Aparajita (Wúnéngshēng Míngwáng) on the left and Padanaksipa (Bùzhì Míngwáng) on the right
-
Trailokyavijaya (Xiángsānshì Míngwáng)
Others
editOther deities to whom the title vidyārāja is applied include:
- Rāgarāja (
愛染明王 ; Ch. Àirǎn Míngwáng; Jp. Aizen Myōō) - A vidyaraja considered to transform worldly lust and sexual passion into spiritual awakening; manifestation of the bodhisattva Vajrasattva and/or the buddha Vairochana.[39] - Āṭavaka (
大元帥 明王 ; Ch. Dàyuánshuài Míngwáng; Jp. Daigensui Myōō or大 元 明王 , Daigen Myōō) - A yaksha attendant of the deva Vaishravana. - Mahāmāyūrī (
孔雀 明王 ; Ch. Kǒngquè Míngwáng; Jp. Kujaku Myōō) - A Wisdom Queen (vidyārājñī); sometimes also classified as a bodhisattva. Unlike most other vidyārājas, s/he is depicted with a benevolent expression. - Mahākrodharāja (
大 可 畏 明王 ; Ch. Dàkěwèi Míngwáng; Jp. Daikai Myōō) - Attendant or manifestation of Amoghapasha (不空 羂索観音 ; Ch. Bùkōng Juànsuǒ Guānyīn; Jp. Fukū Kensaku/Kenjaku Kannon), one of Avalokiteshvara's forms.[40][41][42] - Sadākṣara (
六 字 明王 ; Ch. Liùzì Míngwáng; Jp. Rokuji Myōō) - A deification of the Sadākṣara (Six-Letter) Sutra Ritual (六 字 経 法 ; Jp. Rokuji-kyō hō), a rite of subjugation focused on the six manifestations of Avalokiteshvara.[43] Unlike other Wisdom Kings but like Mahamayuri, he sports a gentle bodhisattva-like countenance and is shown with four or six arms and standing on one leg.[44][45][46]
Examples
editExamples of depictions of the Eight Wisdom Kings can be found at:
- Cliff reliefs and rock carvings at Shizhongshan Grottoes[zh] in Jianchuan, Yunnan
- Statues in the Datong Guanyin Hall[zh] in Datong, Shanxi
- Frescos in the pagoda at Jueshan Temple[zh] in Lingqiu, Shanxi
Examples of depictions of the Ten Wisdom Kings can be found at:
- Rock carvings at the Dazu Rock Carving sites in Dazu, Chongqing
- Statues in Shuanglin Temple near Pingyao, Shanxi
- Statues in Shuilu Nunnery[zh] in Lantian, Xi'an
- Frescos in Qinglong Temple in Jishan, Shanxi
- Frescos in Yong'an Temple[zh] in Hunyuan, Shanxi
- Frescos in Yunlin Temple[zh] in Yanggao, Shanxi
- Frescos in Pilu Temple[zh] in Shijiazhuang, Hebei
- Frescos in Dayun Temple[zh] in Hunyuan, Shanxi
- Water and Land Ritual paintings from various temples, such as Baoning Temple[zh] in Youyu, Shanxi (Currently kept in the Shanxi Museum)
- Documents and carvings from the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang, Gansu
Gallery
edit-
Tang dynasty statue of Acala, now kept at the Forest of Steles, Beilin Stone Museum in Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China
-
Head of a Qing dynasty statue of Hayagrīva, now held in the Gansu Provincial Museum, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
-
Trailokyavijaya in the Buddhist relic collection at the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum (Chinatown, Singapore)
-
Hayagrīva (left) and Trailokyavijaya (right), part of the Dazu Rock Carvings
-
Statue of Āṭavaka at Akishino-dera, Nara, Japan
-
The Wisdom Queen Mahāmāyūrī surrounded by various devas, part of the Dazu Rock Carvings
See also
edit- Dharmapāla and Lokapāla, guardian deities
- Zaō Gongen
Notes
edit- ^ Huìjì Jīngāng and Huǒtóu Jīngāng are sometimes considered to be different names for the same figure, but at times are also regarded as two separate deities.
References
edit- ^ Toganoo, Shozui Makoto (1971). "The Symbol-System of Shingon Buddhism (1)". Journal of Esoteric Buddhism – Mikkyō Bunka: 91, 86.
- ^ a b Haneda (2018), pp. 25–27.
- ^ Mack (2006), p. 298.
- ^ Faure (2015a), p. 116.
- ^ Linrothe (1999), p. 90.
- ^ Linrothe (1999), p. 13, 64-65.
- ^ Linrothe (1999), p. 13.
- ^ Baroni (2002), p. 100.
- ^ Miyasaka (2006), p. 56.
- ^
昭和新 纂国訳 大蔵経 解説 部 第 1巻 (Shōwa shinsan Kokuyaku Daizōkyō: Kaisetsu, vol. 1) (in Japanese). Tōhō Shuppan. 1930. p. 120. - ^ "
三 輪 身 ". コトバンク (kotobank) (in Japanese). Retrieved 2020-11-28. - ^ Linrothe (1999), p. 64-67.
- ^ Linrothe (1999), pp. 68–81.
- ^ a b Linrothe (1999), pp. 163–175.
- ^ Linrothe (1999), pp. 155.
- ^ "3.
両 界 曼荼羅 (りょうかいまんだら)". Shingon-shū Sennyū-ji-ha Jōdo-ji Official Website. Retrieved 2021-09-28. - ^ "Vajratiksna". English Tibetan Dictionary Online. Retrieved 2021-09-28.
- ^ "
大 威徳 明王 ". コトバンク (Kotobank). Retrieved 2021-09-28. - ^ "
大 威徳 明王 ". Shingon-shū Buzan-ha Kōki-zan Jōfuku-ji Official Website. Retrieved 2021-09-28. - ^ Linrothe (1999), pp. 85–91.
- ^ Chandra (1988), pp. 29–31.
- ^ Faure (2015a), pp. 120–123.
- ^ Pal (1974), p. 6.
- ^ "Acala, The Buddhist Protector". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
- ^ Jha (1993), pp. 35–36.
- ^ "Sacred Visions: Early Paintings from Central Tibet - Achala". www.asianart.com. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
- ^ Linrothe (1999), p. 330.
- ^ Van Hartingsveldt, Michael (2018-09-21). "With the Wrath of a Serpent: The Propagation of Gundari Myо̄о̄ Iconography". Buddhistdoor Global. Retrieved 2021-09-25.
- ^ Faure (2015a), p. 117.
- ^ Linrothe (1999), pp. 178–187.
- ^ Faure (2015a), pp. 124–125.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 47, 94–98.
- ^ De Visser (1928), pp. 143–151.
- ^ Vilbar, Sinéad (October 2013). "Kings of Brightness in Japanese Esoteric Buddhist Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2021-10-01.
- ^ "
五 大 尊 ". Flying Deity Tobifudō (Ryukō-zan Shōbō-in Official Website). Retrieved 2021-10-01. - ^ a b c d Howard (2002), pp. 92–107.
- ^ Bloom, Phillip Emmanual (2013). Descent of the Deities: The Water-Land Retreat and the Transformation of the Visual Culture of Song-Dynasty (960–1279) Buddhism (Thesis). OCLC 864907811. ProQuest 1422026705.[page needed]
- ^ Hong, Tsai-Hsia (2005). The Water-Land Dharma Function Platform Ritual and the Great Compassion Repentance Ritual. OCLC 64281400.[page needed]
- ^ "
愛染明王 ". Flying Deity Tobifudo (Ryūkō-zan Shōbō-in Official Website). Retrieved 2021-10-16. - ^ Linrothe (1999), p. 89.
- ^ "
仏像 がわかる! バックナンバー4・明王 部 ". Kōya-san Shingon-shū Hōon-in Official Website. Retrieved 2021-10-02. - ^ "
不空 大 可 畏 明王 央 俱拾真言 " (PDF). JBox-智慧 宝 箧. Retrieved 2021-10-02. - ^ Fuji, Tatsuhiko (2012).
呪法 全書 (Juhō Zensho). Gakken Plus. ISBN 978-4-0591-1008-8. - ^ "
円 成 庵 木造 六 字 尊 立像 ". 2017年度 文化財 維持 ・修復 事業 助成 助成 対象 . The Sumitomo Foundation. Retrieved 2021-10-16. - ^ "
木造 六 字 明王 立像 ". Takamatsu City Official Website. Retrieved 2021-10-16. - ^ "
六 字 明王 ". Flying Deity Tobifudo (Ryūkō-zan Shōbō-in Official Website). Retrieved 2021-10-16.
Further reading
edit- Baroni, Helen Josephine (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism. New York: Rosen Pub. Group. ISBN 0-8239-2240-5.
- Chandra, Lokesh (1988). The Thousand-Armed Avalokiteśvara, Volume 1. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-8-1701-7247-5.
- De Visser, Marinus Willem (1928). Ancient Buddhism in Japan. Brill Archive.
- Faure, Bernard (2015a). The Fluid Pantheon: Gods of Medieval Japan, Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-5702-8.
- Faure, Bernard (2015b). Protectors and Predators: Gods of Medieval Japan, Volume 2. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-5772-1.
- Haneda, Shukai (2018).
不動明王 から力 をもらえる本 (Fudō Myōō kara chikara o moraeru hon) (in Japanese). Daihōrinkaku. ISBN 978-4-8046-1386-4. - Howard, Angela F. (1999-03-01). "The Eight Brilliant Kings of Wisdom of Southwest China". Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics. 35: 92–107. doi:10.1086/RESv35n1ms20167019. ISSN 0277-1322. S2CID 164236937. Archived from the original on 2021-08-24. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
- Jha, Achyutanand (1993). Tathagata Akshobhya and the Vajra Kula: Studies in the Iconography of the Akshobhya Family. National Centre for Oriental Studies.
- Linrothe, Robert N. (1999). Ruthless Compassion: Wrathful Deities in Early Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist Art. Serindia Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-9060-2651-9.
- Mack, Karen (2006). "The Phenomenon of Invoking Fudō for Pure Land Rebirth in Image and Text". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 33 (2): 297–317. JSTOR 30234078.
- Miyasaka, Yūshō (2006).
不動 信仰 事典 (Fudō-shinkō Jiten) (in Japanese). Ebisu Kōshō Shuppan. ISBN 978-4-900901-68-1. - Pal, Pratapaditya (1974). The Arts of Nepal - Volume II: Painting. Brill Archive. ISBN 978-90-04-05750-0.