The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, ended China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing dynasty, and led to the establishment of the Republic of China. The revolution was the culmination of a decade of agitation, revolts, and uprisings. Its success marked the collapse of the Chinese monarchy, the end of over two millennia of imperial rule in China and over 200 years of the Qing dynasty, and the beginning of China's early republican era.[2]
1911 Revolution | |||||||
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Part of the anti-Qing movements | |||||||
Nanjing Road in Shanghai after the Shanghai Uprising, hung with the Five Races Under One Union flags used by revolutionaries in Shanghai and Northern China | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Revolutionaries:
Separatists: | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Thubten Gyatso | |||||||
Strength | |||||||
200,000 |
100,000 Unknown | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
est. 170,000 |
est. 50,000 Unknown |
1911 Revolution | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Chinese | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | "Xinhai (stem-branch) revolution" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The Qing dynasty had struggled for a long time to reform the government and resist foreign aggression, but the program of reforms after 1900 was opposed by conservatives in the Qing court as too radical and by reformers as too slow. Several factions, including underground anti-Qing groups, revolutionaries in exile, reformers who wanted to save the monarchy by modernizing it, and activists across the country debated how or whether to overthrow the Qing dynasty. The flash-point came on 10 October 1911, with the Wuchang Uprising, an armed rebellion among members of the New Army. Similar revolts then broke out spontaneously around the country, and revolutionaries in all provinces of the country renounced the Qing dynasty. On 1 November 1911, the Qing court appointed Yuan Shikai (leader of the powerful Beiyang Army) as Prime Minister, and he began negotiations with the revolutionaries.
In Nanjing, revolutionary forces created a provisional coalition government. On 1 January 1912, the National Assembly declared the establishment of the Republic of China, with Sun Yat-sen, leader of the Tongmenghui (United League), as President of the Republic. A brief civil war between the North and the South ended in compromise. Sun would resign in favor of Yuan Shikai, who would become President of the new national government, if Yuan could secure the abdication of the Qing emperor. The edict of abdication of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor, was promulgated on 12 February 1912. Yuan was sworn in as president on 10 March 1912.
In December 1915, Yuan restored the monarchy and proclaimed himself as the Hongxian Emperor, but the move was met with strong opposition from the population and the Army, leading to his abdication in March 1916 and the reinstatement of the Republic. Yuan's failure to consolidate a legitimate central government before his death in June 1916 led to decades of political division and warlordism, including an attempt at imperial restoration of the Qing dynasty.
The revolution is named Xinhai because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai (
Background
editAfter suffering its first defeat by the West in the First Opium War in 1842, a conservative court culture constrained efforts to reform and did not want to cede authority to local officials. Following defeat in the Second Opium War in 1860, the Qing began efforts to modernize by adopting Western technologies through the Self-Strengthening Movement. In the wars against the Taiping (1851–1864), Nian (1851–1868), Yunnan (1856–1873) and the Northwest (1862–1877), the court came to rely on armies raised by local officials.[4] After a generation of relative success in importing Western naval and weapons technology, defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 was all the more humiliating and convinced many of the need for institutional change.[5] The court established the New Army under Yuan Shikai and many concluded that Chinese society also needed to be modernized if technological and commercial advancements were to succeed.
In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor turned to reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao who offered a program inspired in large part by the reforms in Japan. They proposed basic reform in education, military, and economy in the so-called Hundred Days' Reform.[5] The reform was abruptly canceled by a conservative coup led by Empress Dowager Cixi.[6] The Emperor was put under house arrest in June 1898, where he remained until his death in 1908.[4] Reformers Kang and Liang exiled themselves to avoid being executed. The Empress Dowager controlled policy until her death in 1908, with support from officials such as Yuan. Attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians in the Boxer Rebellion, encouraged by the Empress Dowager, prompted another foreign invasion of Beijing in 1900.
After the Allies imposed a punitive settlement, the Qing court carried out basic fiscal and administrative reforms, including local and provincial elections. These moves did not secure trust or wide support among political activists. Many, like Zou Rong, felt strong anti-Manchu prejudice and blamed them for China's troubles. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao formed the Emperor Protection Society in an attempt to restore the emperor,[4] but others, such as Sun Yat-sen organized revolutionary groups to overthrow the dynasty rather than reform it. They could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions, or exile overseas, but created a following among Chinese in North America and Southeast Asia, and within China, even in the new armies. The famine in 1906 and 1907 was also a major contributor to the revolution.[7] Following the death of the Guangxu Emperor and the Empress Dowager Cixi in 1908, the throne was inherited by the two-years-old Xuantong Emperor, with Prince Chun as a regent. The Prince continued the reform path of Cixi, but conservative Manchu elements in the court opposed it, causing further support for revolutionaries.
Organization of the Revolution
editEarliest groups
editMany revolutionaries and groups wanted to overthrow the Qing government to re-establish the Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as Yeung Ku-wan's Furen Literary Society, created in Hong Kong in 1890. There were 15 members, including Tse Tsan-tai, who did political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first-ever Chinese manhua, and who later became one of the core founders of the South China Morning Post.[8]
Sun Yat-sen's Xingzhonghui (Revive China Society) was established in Honolulu in 1894 with the main purpose of raising funds for revolutions.[9] The two organizations merged in 1894.[10]
Smaller groups
editThe Huaxinghui (China Revival Society) was founded in 1904 by notables like Huang Xing, Zhang Shizhao, Chen Tianhua, Sun Yat-sen, and Song Jiaoren, along with 100 others. Their motto was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise".[11]
The Guangfuhui (Restoration Society) was also founded in 1904, in Shanghai, by Cai Yuanpei. Other notable members include Zhang Binglin and Tao Chengzhang.[12] Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen.[13] One of the most famous female revolutionaries was Qiu Jin, who fought for women's rights and was also from Guangfuhui.[13]
There were also many other minor revolutionary organizations, such as Lizhi Xuehui (勵志
Criminal organizations also existed that were anti-Manchu, including the Green Gang and Hongmen Zhigongtang (致公
Gelaohui (Elder Brother Society) was another group, with Zhu De, Wu Yuzhang, Liu Zhidan (
Tongmenghui
editSun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, Huaxinghui and Guangfuhui in the summer of 1905, thereby establishing the unified Tongmenghui (United League) in August 1905 in Tokyo.[18] While it started in Tokyo, it had loose organizations distributed across and outside the country. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of this unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin. When the Tongmenghui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenghui members were between 17 and 26 years of age.[19] Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications such as the Journal of Current Pictorial.[20]
Later groups
editIn February 1906, Rizhihui (
In July 1907, several members of Tongmenghui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the Yangtze River. Liu Quiyi (
Many young revolutionaries adopted the anarchist program. In Tokyo, Liu Shipei proposed to overthrow the Manchus and return to Chinese classical values. In Paris, well-connected young intellectuals, Li Shizhen, Wu Zhihui and Zhang Renjie, agreed with Sun's revolutionary program and joined the Tongmenghui, but argued that simply replacing one government with another would not be progress; fundamental cultural change, a revolution in family, gender and social values, would remove the need for government and coercion. Zhang Ji and Wang Jingwei were among the anarchists who defended assassination and terrorism as means to awaken the people to revolution, but others insisted that education was the only justifiable strategy. Important anarchists included Cai Yuanpei. Zhang Renjie gave Sun major financial help. Many of these anarchists would later assume high positions in the Kuomintang (KMT).[27]
Views
editMany revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing/anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the ethnic minority Manchu and the ethnic majority Han Chinese from the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the final years of the Ming dynasty, the last dynasty of Han Chinese. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal was "to expel the Tatar barbarians, to revive Zhonghua, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people." (
Strata and groups
editMany groups supported the 1911 Revolution, including students and intellectuals returning from abroad, as well as participants of revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers, and others.
Overseas Chinese
editAssistance from overseas Chinese was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ.[30] Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in funding revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of Malaya (Singapore and Malaysia).[31] Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".[31]
Newly-Emerged intellectuals
editThe Qing government established new schools and encouraged students to study abroad as part of the Self-Strengthening movement. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan.[32] A new progressive class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, Song Jiaoren, Hu Hanmin, Liao Zhongkai, Zhu Zhixin and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like Zou Rong, known for writing Revolutionary Army, a book in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty, and tyranny, and turning the sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor into George Washingtons.[33][colloquialism]
Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings they would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like Sanhehui were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."[34]
Gentry and businessmen
editThe gentry's strength in local politics became apparent. From December 1908, the Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a cabinet with Prince Qing as prime minister.[35] By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from the imperial family.[36]
Foreign supporters
editBesides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. Miyazaki Touten was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and Ryōhei Uchida. Homer Lea, an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions.[37] British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution.[38] Some foreigners, such as English explorer Arthur de Carle Sowerby, led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.[39]
The far right-wing Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus, believing that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose the takeover. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and that Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlarge the opium trade in China, while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed.[40] The far right-wing Japanese ultranationalist Gen'yōsha leader Tōyama Mitsuru supported anti-Manchu, anti-Qing revolutionary activities including the ones organized by Sun Yat-sen and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing Tongmenghui was founded and based in exile in Japan where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered.
The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. The Japanese were the ones who helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together, and there were Japanese like Tōten Miyazaki inside of the anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting.[41] The Black Dragon Society had very intimate, long term and influential relations with Sun Yat-sen who sometimes passed himself off as Japanese.[42][43][44] According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold the first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive the Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. The Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan in 1932.[45] Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese woman, Kaoru Otsuki.
Soldiers of the New Armies
editThe New Army was formed in 1901 after the defeat of the Qings in the First Sino-Japanese War.[32] They were launched by a decree from eight provinces.[32] New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped.[32] Recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions.[32] Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated the New Army.[46]
Prelude
editThe central foci of the uprisings were mostly connected with the Tongmenghui and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed before the Wuchang Uprising.
First Guangzhou Uprising
editIn the spring of 1895, the Revive China Society, based in Hong Kong, planned the First Guangzhou Uprising (
Independence Army Uprising
editIn 1900, after the Boxer Rebellion started, Tang Caichang (
Huizhou Uprising
editOn 8 October 1900, Sun Yat-sen ordered the launch of the Huizhou Uprising (
Great Ming Uprising
editA very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903, to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" (
Ping-liu-li Uprising
editMa Fuyi (
Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway assassination attempt
editWu Yue (
Huanggang Uprising
editThe Huanggang Uprising (
Huizhou Qinühu Uprising
editIn the same year, Sun Yat-sen sent more revolutionaries to Huizhou to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu Uprising" (
Anqing Uprising
editOn 6 July 1907, Xu Xilin of Guangfuhui led an uprising in Anqing, Anhui, which became known as the Anqing Uprising (
Qinzhou Uprising
editFrom August to September 1907, the Qinzhou Uprising occurred (欽州
Zhennanguan Uprising
editOn 1 December 1907, the Zhennanguan Uprising (鎮南
Qin-Lian Uprising
editOn 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-lian Uprising (欽廉
Hekou Uprising
editIn April 1908, another uprising was launched in Yunnan, Hekou, called the Hekou Uprising (
Mapaoying Uprising
editOn 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising (
Gengxu New Army Uprising
editIn February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising (
Second Guangzhou Uprising
editOn 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in Guangzhou, known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising (
Wuchang Uprising
editThe Literary Society (
The New Army units of Hubei had originally been the Hubei Army, which had been trained by Qing official Zhang Zhidong.[2] On 24 September, the Literary Society and Progressive Association convened a conference in Wuchang, along with sixty representatives from local New Army units. During the conference, they established a headquarters for the uprising. The leaders of the two organizations, Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊
Revolutionaries intent on overthrowing the Qing dynasty had built bombs, and on 9 October, one accidentally exploded.[73] Sun Yat-sen himself had no direct part in the uprising and was traveling in the United States at the time to recruit more support from among overseas Chinese. The Qing Viceroy of Huguang, Rui Cheng (
Revolutionaries killed a German arms dealer in Hankou as he was delivering arms to the Qing.[75] Revolutionaries killed 2 Germans and wounded 2 other Germans at the battle of Hanyang, including a former colonel.[76]
Provincial uprisings
editAfter the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some uprisings declared restoration (
Changsha Restoration
editOn 22 October 1911, the Hunan Tongmenghui were led by Jiao Dafeng (
Shaanxi Uprising
editOn the same day, Shaanxi's Tongmenghui, led by Jing Dingcheng (
Hui General Ma Anliang abandoned the Qing cause upon the Qing abdication in the Xinhai Revolution while the Manchu governor general Shengyun was enraged at the revolution.[88][89]
Pro-revolution Hui Muslims like Shaanxi Governor Ma Yugui and Beijing Imam Wang Kuan persuaded Qing Hui general Ma Anliang to stop fighting, telling him as Muslims not to kill each other for the sake of the Qing monarchists and side with the republican revolutionaries instead. Ma Anliang then agreed to abandon the Qing under the combination of Yuan Shikai's actions and these messages from other Hui.[90][91][92] [93][94] [95][96][97][98][99]
A year before the massacre of Manchus in October 1911, an oath against Manchus was sworn at the Great Goose Pagoda in Xi'an by the Gelaohui in 1911.[100][101] Manchu banner garrisons were slaughtered in Nanjing, Zhenjiang, Taiyuan, Xi'an and Wuchang[102][103][104][105][106] The Manchu quarter was located in the north eastern part of Xi'an and walled off while the Hui Muslim quarter was located in the northwestern part of Xi'an but did not have walls separating it from the Han parts. Southern Xi'an was entirely Han.[107][108][109][110] Xi'an had the biggest Manchu banner garrison quarter by area before its destruction.[111]
The revolutionaries were led by students of the military academy who overcame the guards at the gates of Xi'an and shut them, secured the arsenal and slaughtering all Manchus at their temple and then storming and slaughtering the Manchus in the Manchu banner quarter of the city. The Manchu quarter was set on fire and many Manchus were burned alive. Manchu men, women and girls were slaughtered for three days and then after that, only Manchu women and girls were spared while Manchu men and boys continued to be slaughtered. Many Manchus committed suicide by overdosing on opium and throwing themselves into wells. The revolutionaries were helped by the fact that Manchus stored gunpowder in their houses so they exploded when set on fire, killing the Manchus inside. 10,000 to 20,000 Manchus were slaughtered.[112]
Ma Anliang was ordered to attack the revolutionaries in Shaanxi by the baoyi bondservant Chang Geng and Manchu Shengyun.[113][114]
Eastern soldiers of the new republic were mobilized by Yuan Shikai when the attack against Shaanxi began by Ma Anliang, but news of the abdication of the Qing emperor reached Ma Anliang before he attacked Xi'an, so Ma Anliang ended all military operations and changed his allegiance to the Republic of China. All pro-Qing military activity in the northwest was put to an end by this.[115]
Yuan Shikai managed to induce Ma Anliang to not attack Shaanxi after the Gelaohui took over the province and accept the Republic of China under his presidency in 1912. During the National Protection war in 1916 between republicans and Yuan Shikai's monarchy, Ma Anliang readied his soldiers and informed the republicans that he and the Muslims would stick to Yuan Shikai until the end.[116] Yuan Shikai ordered Ma Anliang to block Bai Lang (White Wolf) from going into Sichuan and Gansu by blocking Hanzhong and Fengxiangfu.[117]
The Protestant Shensi mission operated a hospital in Xian.[118] Some American missionaries were reported killed in Xi'an.[119] A report claimed Manchus massacred missionaries in the suburbs of Xi'an.[120] Missionaries were reported killed in Xi'an and Taiyuan.[121] Shaanxi joined the revolution on October 24.[122] Sheng Yun was governor of Shaanxi in 1905.[123][124][125][126]
Some Gansu Hui led by Ma Fuxiang joined the republicans. Gansu Hui general Ma Fuxiang did not participate with Ma Anliang in the battles with Shaanxi revolutionaries and refused to join the Qing Manchu Shengyun and Changgeng in their attempts to defend the Qing before the Qing abdication, instead the independence of Gansu from Qing control was jointly declared by non-Muslim gentry with Hui Muslim Ma Fuxiang.[127]
Jiujiang Uprising
editOn 23 October, Lin Sen, Jiang Qun (蔣群), Cai Hui (蔡蕙) and other members of the Tongmenghui in the province of Jiangxi plotted a revolt of New Army units.[77][129] A naval fleet of Qing Dynasty was also revolted against Qing Army, this was solidified the victory of Wuchang Uprising.[130] After they achieved victory, they announced their independence. The Jiujiang Military Government was then established.[129]
Shanxi Taiyuan Uprising
editOn 29 October, Yan Xishan of the New Army led an uprising in Taiyuan, the capital city of the province of Shanxi, along with Yao Yijie (姚以
The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu.[132] They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (
Kunming Double Ninth Uprising
editOn 30 October, Li Genyuan (
Nanchang Restoration
editOn 31 October, the Nanchang branch of the Tongmenghui led New Army units in a successful uprising. They established the Jiangxi Military Government.[77] Li Liejun was elected as the military governor.[129] Li declared Jiangxi as independent and launched an expedition against Qing official Yuan Shikai.[69]
Shanghai Armed Uprising
editOn 3 November, Shanghai's Tongmenghui, Guangfuhui and merchants led by Chen Qimei (
Guizhou Uprising
editOn 4 November, Zhang Bailin (
Zhejiang Uprising
editAlso on 4 November, revolutionaries in Zhejiang urged the New Army units in Hangzhou to launch an uprising.[129] Zhu Rui (
Jiangsu Restoration
editOn 5 November, Jiangsu constitutionalists and gentry urged Qing governor Cheng Dequan (
Anhui Uprising
editMembers of Anhui's Tongmenghui also launched an uprising on that day and laid siege to the provincial capital. The constitutionalists persuaded Zhu Jiabao (
Guangxi Uprising
editOn 7 November, the Guangxi politics department decided to secede from the Qing government, announcing Guangxi's independence. Qing Governor Shen Bingkun (沈秉堃) was allowed to remain governor, but Lu Rongting would soon become the new governor.[61] Lu Rongting would later rise to prominence during the "warlord era" as one of the warlords, and his bandits controlled Guangxi for more than a decade.[142] Under leadership of Huang Shaohong, the Muslim law student Bai Chongxi was enlisted into a Dare to Die unit to fight as a revolutionary.[143]
Fujian Independence
editIn November, members of Fujian's branch of the Tongmenghui, along with Sun Daoren (
Guangdong Independence
editNear the end of October, Chen Jiongming, Deng Keng (鄧鏗), Peng Reihai (彭瑞
Shandong Independence
editOn 13 November, after being persuaded by revolutionary Ding Weifen and several other officers of the New Army, the Qing governor of Shandong, Sun Baoqi, agreed to secede from the Qing government and announced Shandong's independence.[78]
Ningxia Uprising
editOn 17 November, Ningxia Tongmenghui launched the Ningxia Uprising (
Sichuan Independence
editOn 21 November, Guang'an organized the Great Han Shu Northern Military Government.[78][156]
On 22 November, Chengdu and Sichuan began to declare independence. By the 27th, the Great Han Sichuan Military Government was established, headed by revolutionary Pu Dianzun (
Nanjing Uprising
editOn 8 November, supported by the Tongmenghui, Xu Shaozhen (
Dihua and Yili Uprising
editIn Xinjiang on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (
On 8 January, a new Yili government was established for the revolutionaries. Today some Chinese historians believe this contributed to the Qing dynasty fall, because this prevented the Qing dynasty's plan to flee to the western country.[161][159] The revolutionaries would be defeated at Jinghe in January and February,[160][162] eventually, because of the abdication to come, Yuan Shikai recognized Yang Zengxin's rule, appointed him Governor of Xinjiang and had the province join the Republic.[160] Eleven more former Qing officials would be assassinated in Zhenxi, Karashahr, Aksu, Kucha, Luntai and Kashgar in April and May 1912.[160]
The revolutionaries printed new multi-lingual media.[163]
Uprisings in territories
editTibetan secession
editIn 1905, the Qing sent Zhao Erfeng to Tibet to retaliate against rebellions.[164] By 1908, Zhao was appointed imperial resident in Lhasa.[164] Zhao was beheaded in December 1911 by pro-Republican forces.[165] The bulk of the area historically known as Kham was now claimed to be the Xikang Administrative District, created by the Republican revolutionaries.[166] By the end of 1912, the last Qing troops were forced out of Tibet through India. Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama, returned to Tibet in January 1913 from Sikkim, where he had been residing.[167] When the new ROC government apologized for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama to his former position, he replied he was not interested in Chinese ranks, that Tibet had never been subordinated to China, that Tibet was an independent country, and that he was assuming the spiritual and political leadership of Tibet.[167] Because of this, many have read this reply as a formal declaration of independence. The Chinese side ignored the response, and Tibet had thirty years free of interference from China until 1951 and now Tibet is still ruled by China.[167]
Outer Mongolian secession
editAt the end of 1911, Outer Mongolians took action with an armed revolt against Qing authorities but were unsuccessful.[168] The independence movement that took place was not limited to just Outer Mongolia but was a pan-Mongolian phenomenon.[168] On 29 December 1911, Bogd Khan became the ruler of the Bogd Khanate. Inner Mongolia became a contested terrain between the Bogd Khanate and China.[169] In general, Russia supported the independence of Outer Mongolia (including Tannu Uriankhai) during the time of the 1911 Revolution.[170]
Tibet and Outer Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty. In 1919, the Republic of China regained Outer Mongolia but then lost it again in 1921. The People's Republic of China, a member of the United Nations, has officially recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia since 1949. However, the Republic of China based on the island of Taiwan has not yet officially recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia from China, but its government has opened a cultural representative office and economy as an alternative to the official embassy in Ulaanbaatar since 2002.[citation needed]
Tannu Uriankhai secession
editChange of government
editNorth: Qing Court final transformation attempt
editOn 1 November 1911, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as Prime Minister of the imperial cabinet, replacing Prince Qing.[171] On 3 November, after a proposition by Cen Chunxuan from the Constitutional Monarchy Movement (
South: Provisional Government in Nanking
editOn 28 November 1911, Wuchang and Hanyang had fallen back to the Qing army. So for safety, the revolutionaries convened their first conference at the British Concession in Hankou on 30 November.[175] By 2 December, the revolutionary forces were able to capture Nanking in the uprising; and the revolutionaries decided to make it the site of the new provisional government.[176] At the time, Beijing was still the Qing capital.
North–South Conference
editOn 18 December, the North–South Conference (
Establishment of the Republic
editRepublic of China declared and national flag issued
editOn 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected as the first provisional president.[182] 1 January 1912 was set as the first day of the First Year of the ROC.[183] On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the Provisional Vice-president.[184]
During and after the 1911 Revolution, many groups that participated wanted their own pennant as the national flag. During the Wuchang Uprising, the military units of Wuchang wanted the nine-star flag with Taijitu.[185] Others in competition included Lu Haodong's Blue Sky with a White Sun flag. Huang Xing favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of Five Races Under One Union.[185] The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic.[186] The red represented Han, the yellow represented Manchus, the blue for Mongols, the white for Muslims, and the black for Tibetans.[185][186] Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated racial integration to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.[187]
Donghuamen Incident
editOn 16 January, while returning to his residence, Yuan Shikai was ambushed in a bomb attack organized by the Tongmenghui in Donghuamen (
Abdication of the Emperor
editZhang Jian drafted an abdication proposal that was approved by the Provisional Senate. On 20 January, Wu Tingfang of the Nanking Provisional Government officially delivered the Imperial Edict of Abdication to Yuan Shikai for the abdication of Puyi.[173] On 22 January, Sun Yat-sen announced that he would resign the presidency in favor of Yuan Shikai if the latter supported the emperor's abdication.[189] Yuan then pressured Empress Dowager Longyu with the threat that the imperial family's lives would not be spared if abdication did not come before the revolutionaries reached Beijing, but if they agreed to abdicate, the provisional government would honor the terms proposed by the imperial family.
On 3 February, Empress Dowager Longyu gave Yuan full permission to negotiate the abdication terms of the Qing emperor. Yuan then drew up his own version and forwarded it to the revolutionaries on 3 February.[173] His version consisted of three sections instead of two.[173] On 12 February 1912, after being pressured by Yuan and other ministers, Puyi (age six) and Empress Dowager Longyu accepted Yuan's terms of abdication.[183]
Debate over the capital
editAs a condition for ceding leadership to Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen insisted that the provisional government remain in Nanjing. On 14 February, the Provisional Senate initially voted 20–5 in favor of making Beijing the capital over Nanjing, with two votes going for Wuhan and one for Tianjin.[190] The Senate majority wanted to secure the peace agreement by taking power in Beijing.[190] Zhang Jian and others reasoned that having the capital in Beijing would check against Manchu restoration and Mongol secession. But Sun and Huang Xing argued in favor of Nanjing to balance against Yuan's power base in the north.[190] Li Yuanhong presented Wuhan as a compromise.[190] The next day, the Provisional Senate voted again, this time, 19–6 in favor of Nanjing with two votes for Wuhan.[190] Sun sent a delegation led by Cai Yuanpei and Wang Jingwei to persuade Yuan to move to Nanjing.[190] Yuan welcomed the delegation and agreed to accompany the delegates back to the south.[190] Then on the evening of 29 February, riots and fires broke out all over the city.[190] They were allegedly started by disobedient troops of Cao Kun, a loyal officer of Yuan.[190] The disorder gave Yuan the pretext to stay in the north to guard against unrest. On 10 March, Yuan was inaugurated in Beijing as the Provisional President of the Republic of China.[190] On 5 April, the Provisional Senate in Nanjing voted to make Beijing the capital of the Republic and convened in Beijing at the end of the month.
Republican Government in Beijing
editOn 10 March 1912, Yuan Shikai was sworn as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China in Beijing.[191] The first National Assembly election took place according to the Provisional Constitution. While in Beijing, the Kuomintang was formed on 25 August 1912.[192] The KMT held the majority of seats after the election. Song Jiaoren was elected as premier. However, Song was assassinated in Shanghai on 20 March 1913, under the secret order of Yuan Shikai.[193]
Proposed Han monarchs and retention of noble titles
editSome advocated that an ethnic Han be installed as Emperor of China, either a descendant of Confucius who held the noble title of the Duke of Yansheng,[194][195][196][197][198] or a descendant of the Ming imperial family who possessed the title of the Marquis of Extended Grace.[199][200] The Duke of Yansheng was proposed as a candidate for emperorship by Liang Qichao.[201]
The Han hereditary aristocratic nobility like the Duke of Yansheng, the Marquis of Extended Grace, and the title of the Wujing Boshi (changed to "Dacheng Zhisheng Xianshi Nanzong Fengsi Guan"
A plan backed by foreign bankers was reportedly in place to declare the Duke of Yansheng as Emperor of China, if the revolutionary's republican cause failed.[126][202]
Legacy
editSocial influence
editAfter the revolution, there was a huge outpouring of anti-Manchu sentiment through China, but particularly in Beijing where thousands died in anti-Manchu violence. Imperial restrictions on Han residency and behavior within the city crumbled as Manchu imperial power crumbled.[203] Anti-Manchu sentiment is recorded in books like A Short History of Slaves (
During the abdication of the last emperor, Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai and Sun Yat-sen both tried to adopt the concept of "Manchu and Han as one family" (
Unlike revolutions in the West, the 1911 Revolution did not restructure society. The participants in the 1911 Revolution were mostly military personnel, old-type bureaucrats, and local gentries. These people still held regional power after the 1911 Revolution. Some became warlords. There were no major improvements in the standard of living. The writer Lu Xun commented in 1921 during the publishing of The True Story of Ah Q, ten years after the 1911 Revolution, that basically nothing changed except "the Manchus have left the kitchen".[208] Economic problems were not addressed until the governance of Chiang Ching-kuo in Taiwan and Mao Zedong on the mainland.[209]
The 1911 Revolution mainly got rid of feudalism (fengjian) from Late Imperial China. In the usual view of historians, there are two restorations of feudal power after the revolution: the first was Yuan Shikai; the second was Zhang Xun.[210] Due to the effects of anti-Manchu sentiment after the revolution, the Manchus of the Metropolitan Banners were driven into deep poverty, with Manchu men too impoverished to marry, so Han men married Manchu women, Manchus stopped dressing in Manchu clothing and stopped practicing Manchu traditions.[211]
Historical significance
editThe 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and four thousand years of monarchy.[2] Throughout Chinese history, old dynasties had always been replaced by new dynasties. The 1911 Revolution, however, was the first to overthrow a monarchy completely and attempt to establish a republic to spread democratic ideas throughout China. Though in 1911 at the provisional government proclamation ceremony, Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution is not yet successful, the comrades still need to strive for the future." (
Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties –the ROC and PRC– see the 1911 Revolution quite differently.[213] Both Chinas recognize Sun Yat-sen as the Father of the Nation, but in Taiwan, they mean "Father of the Republic of China".[213] On the mainland, Sun Yat-sen was seen as the man who helped bring down the Qing, a pre-condition for the Communist state founded in 1949.[213] The PRC (Mainland) views Sun's work as the first step toward the real revolution in 1949, when the communists set up a truly independent state that expelled foreigners and built a military and industrial power.[213] The father of New China is seen as Mao Zedong.[213] In 1954, Liu Shaoqi was quoted as saying that the "1911 Revolution inserted the concept of a republic into common people".[214][215] Zhou Enlai pointed out that the "1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing rule, ended 4,000 years of monarchy, and liberated the mind of people to a great extent, and opened up the path for the development of future revolution. This is a great victory."[216]
Modern evaluation
editA change in the belief that the revolution had been a generally positive change began in the late 1980s and 1990s, but Zhang Shizhao was quoted as arguing that "When talking about the 1911 Revolution, the theorist these days tends to overemphasize. The word 'success' was way overused."[217]
The degree of success of democracy gained by the revolution can vary depending on one's view. Even after Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, for sixty years, the KMT controlled all five branches of the government; none were independent.[209] Yan Jiaqi, founder of the Federation for a Democratic China, has said that Sun Yat-sen is to be credited as founding China's first republic in 1912, and the second republic is the people of Taiwan and the political parties there now democratizing the region.[210]
Meanwhile, the ideals of democracy are far from realised on the mainland Chinese side. For example, former Chinese premier Wen Jiabao once said in a speech that without real democracy, there is no guarantee of economic and political rights; but he led a 2011 crackdown against the peaceful Chinese jasmine protests.[218] Others, such as Qin Yongmin (
Media
editOne of Japan's earliest film companies (M. Pathe, owned by Sun supporter Shōkichi Umeya) documented the success of the revolution beginning with the Wuchang uprising and leading to Sun's inauguration, producing three documentary films that covered the revolution.[222]: 1
See also
editNotes
edit^ a: Many of the Qing soldiers with Han background turned to support the revolution during the uprisings, so the actual casualties are hard to trace.
^ b: Clipping from Min Bao (People's Papers). Originally the publishing of Hua Xin Hui and named China of the Twentieth Century, it was renamed after the establishment of Tongmenghui.
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On his order, Wang was executed.66 According to Yuan Shikai, the most important ... to arrest bad elements and protect the people (chubao'anliang), ...
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This message by Wang may have contributed to breaking the resistance of Ma Anliang, who had in any case, come under strong pressure of Yuan Shikai's ...
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1980). The Border World of Gansu, 1895-1935. Stanford University. pp. 208, 105, 209.
... White Wolf and the " Hui protector and mediator , " Ma Anliang . When Yuan Shikai died in 1916 , Zhang Guangjian's control over Gansu did not decrease .
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... thereupon supporting Yuan Shikai even when he declared himself emperor. Despite their close relationship, when his superior Ma Anliang tried to arrest ...
{{cite book}}
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tierte Yuan Shikai in bezug auf die Boxerbewegung, daß "Irrlehren (yaoyan) ... Revolte Ruhe und Frieden eintreten können" (chu bao nai ke anliang gaoshi).
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When that army's commander, Dong Fuxiang died in 1908, Ma Anliang took control ... To curb the power of these warlords, Yuan Shikai sent his subordinates to ...
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During the Second Revolution in 1913 he was persuaded by the southern Revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen to join the anti-Yuan Shikai rebellion.
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Yuan Shikai, later to become the first President of the Republic of China, was in charge of foreign affairs (and much else) for this last decade of the ...
- ^ Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018). Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal. Contemporary Chinese Studies. UBC Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0774837811.
On his order, Wang was executed.66 According to Yuan Shikai, the most important ... to arrest bad elements and protect the people (chubao'anliang), ...
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... poor' and 'Down with Yuan Shikai,' the first president of the new Chinese ... Ma Anliang sent his subordinate Ma Qi to the old town of Taozhou on April ...
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... commanders such as Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Li Hongzhang and Yuan Shikai. ... Ma Anliang, Ma Fuxiang, and Ma Fuxing who commanded the Kansu Braves.
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Sheng Yun , a Manchu , and Chang Geng , a life bondservant of the Qing house , agreed that an attack had to be undertaken swiftly , so Ma was ... Chang needed the Hui , and that meant trusting the loyalty of Ma Anliang and Ma Fuxiang .
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... will enter the Ministry of Commerce which will be A Peking telegram also states that Sheng Yun , the reorganized ... where is alleged to be coTsen Chun - hsuan . operating with General Ma An - liang in stirring up The " Peking Jih ...
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General Ma An - liang to take his Muhammadan requesting that the disbandment be postponed troops to Fenghsiangfu and ... also that all latter reached Sianfu by forced marches from asking for information regarding the statements local ...
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On October 24th , ancient Singan , the capital of the northwestern province of Shensi , the original capital of China , where the empress dowager , Tse Hsi
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That degradation of H. E. Sheng Yun , Governor of Shensi , A Peking correspondent , writing about the recent was delayed some three hours . A telegram was received on Feb. 18th in Japanese adventurers should be serving with to ihe post ...
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Further reading
editPrimary Sources
editContemporary Accounts
edit- Dingle, Edwin J. (1912). China's Revolution: 1911–1912. A Historical and Political Record of the Civil War. Shanghai, China: Commercial Press. Available on Internet Archive HERE
- Kent, P. H. B. (1912). The Passing of the Manchus. London: E. Arnold.
Scholarly Secondary Sources
editEnglish
edit- Edwards, Louise, and Lili Zhou. "Gender and the 'virtue of violence': Creating a new vision of political engagement through the 1911 revolution." Frontiers of History in China 6.4 (2011): 485–504 online.
- Esherick, Joseph W. "Reconsidering 1911: Lessons of a sudden revolution." Journal of Modern Chinese History 6.1 (2012): 1–14, historiography.
- Esherick, Joseph W. (1976). Reform and revolution in China: the 1911 revolution in Hunan and Hubei. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03084-8.
- Fenby, Jonathan. "The Birth of China's Tragedy." History Today (2011) 61#10 pp. 29–35.
- Fung, Edmund S. K. (1980). The military dimension of the Chinese revolution: The New Army and its role in the revolution of 1911. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0129-4.
- Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1991). A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist state. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07590-0.
- Hsieh, Winston (1975). Chinese historiography on the Revolution of 1911: a critical survey and a selected bibliography. Hoover Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8179-3341-8.
- Kaplan, Lawrence M. (2010). Homer Lea: American Soldier of Fortune. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2616-6.
- Kit-ching, Chan Lau (1978). Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy 1906-1920: In the Careers of Sir John Jordan and Yüan Shih-kai. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 962-209-010-9.
- Ma, L. Eve Armentrout (1990). Revolutionaries, monarchists, and Chinatowns: Chinese politics in the Americas and the 1911 revolution. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1239-3.
- Mitter, Rana. "1911: The Unanchored Chinese Revolution." China Quarterly 208 (2011): 1009–1020.
- Paulès, Xavier. The Republic of China, 1912-1949, chapter 1 (Polity Press, 2023)
- Rankin, Mary Backus (1986). Elite activism and political transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1321-4.
- Rhoads, Edward J.M. (2000). Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98040-0. Viewable online at University of Washington Press Manchus and Han.
- Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018). Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal (U of British Columbia Press). ISBN 9780774837781.
- Shinkichi, Eto; Schiffrin, Harold Z. (1994). China's republican revolution. [Tokyo]: University of Tokyo Press. ISBN 978-4-13-027030-4.
- Wright, Mary Clabaugh (1978). China in revolution: the first phase 1900–1913. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-01460-0.
- Young, Ernest P. (1977). The Presidency of Yuan Shih-K'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, Michigan Studies on China.
- Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future," Asian Survey, 31#10 (1991), pp. 895–904, online historiography
- Zheng, Xiaowei. The Politics of Rights and the 1911 Revolution in China (Stanford UP, 2018) online review.
Chinese
edit- Tang (
唐 ), Degang (德 剛 ) (1998). The Late 50 years of Qing: Yuan Shikai, Sun Yat-sen and Xinhai Revolution. Taipei: Yuanliu (遠流 ). ISBN 978-957-32-3513-2. - Tang (
唐 ), Degang (德 剛 ) (2002). 袁氏當 國 [The Rule of Yuan Shikai]. Taipei: Yuanliu (遠流 ). ISBN 978-957-32-4680-0. - Zhang (
張 ), Yufa (玉 法 ) (1998).中華民國 史 稿 [The History of the Republic of China]. Taipei: Lianjin (聯 經 ). ISBN 978-957-08-1826-0. - Lin (
林 ), Yusheng (毓生) (1983). <五四時代的激烈反傳統思想與中國自由主義的前途>收入 "思想 與 人物 " [The Anti-tradition Trends of May Fourth Era and the Future of Libertarianism in China included in "Personage and their thoughts"]. Taipei: Lianjin (聯 經 ). ISBN 978-957-08-0384-6. - Zhou (
周 ), Weimin (伟民); Tang (唐 ), Linlin (玲 玲 ) (2002).中国 和 马来西 亚文化 交流 史 [The History of Cultural Interactions of China and Malaysia]. Haikou: Hainan (海南 ). ISBN 978-7-5443-0682-9. - Li (
李 ), Zehou (澤 厚 ); Liu (劉 ), Zhaifu (再 復 ) (1999).告別 革命 -二 十 世紀 中國 對談 錄 [A Farewell to the Revolutions: Records of Discussions in 20th century China]. Taipei: Maitian (麥田 ). ISBN 978-957-708-735-5.
External links
edit- Media related to Xinhai Revolution at Wikimedia Commons