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Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign - Wikipedia
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Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign

Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign, also known as the War of Pacification in Nanzhong, was a military campaign which took place in 225 during the early Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of China. It was led by Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor of the state of Shu Han, against opposing forces in the Nanzhong region (covering parts of present-day Yunnan, Guizhou and southern Sichuan). The campaign was a response to rebellions started by local governors in the Nanzhong region and intrusions by the Nanman (literally: "southern barbarians").

Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign
Part of the wars of the Three Kingdoms period

Wooden diorama in Huaxilou, Bozhou, Anhui depicting Zhuge Liang's campaign against the Nanman
DateSpring – Autumn 225
Location
Nanzhong (covering present-day Yunnan, Guizhou and southern Sichuan), China
Result Shu Han victory
Belligerents
Shu Han Shu rebels,
Nanman
Commanders and leaders
Zhuge Liang
Ma Zhong
Li Hui		 Yong Kai †
Zhu Bao
Gao Ding Executed
Meng Huo Surrendered
Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign
Traditional Chinese諸しょ葛かずら亮あきら南みなみ征せい
Simplified Chinese诸葛亮あきら南みなみ征せい
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinZhūgě Liàng Nán Zhēng
War of Pacification in Nanzhong
Traditional Chinese南中なんちゅう平定へいてい戰せん
Simplified Chinese南中なんちゅう平定へいてい战
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinNánzhōng Píngdìng Zhàn
Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign

Background

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In October 222,[1] Liu Bei, the founding emperor of Shu, lost the Battle of Xiaoting against Shu's ally-turned-rival state Wu. He died in Baidicheng (in present-day Fengjie County, Chengdu) in June 223.[2]

Yong Kai's rebellion

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Yong Kai (雍闓), a descendant of Yong Chi (雍齒) and an official active in the Nanzhong region, heard about Liu Bei's death and started a rebellion against Shu rule. He killed Zheng Ang (正せい昂のぼる), the Shu-appointed Administrator of Jianning Commandery (建たて寧やすし郡ぐん; around present-day Qujing, Yunnan), and took Zheng Ang's successor Zhang Yi hostage. The Shu general Li Yan wrote a total of six letters to Yong Kai to dissuade him from rebelling, but Yong Kai arrogantly replied: "I heard that the sky cannot have two suns and the land cannot have two rulers. Now, from a distance away, I see that the Empire has been divided into three, so I am fearful and confused and do not know whom to pledge allegiance to."[3]

Under urging from Shi Xie and the Wu general Bu Zhi, Yong Kai agreed to pledge allegiance to Wu and he sent Zhang Yi as a captive to the Wu emperor Sun Quan to express his sincerity. In return, Sun Quan appointed him as the Administrator of Yongchang Commandery (永昌えいしょう郡ぐん; covering parts of present-day western Yunnan), which was then guarded by the Shu officials Lü Kai and Wang Kang (王おう伉). When Yong Kai showed up to take control of Yongchang, Lü Kai and Wang Kang refused to recognise his legitimacy and led both the local government and civilians alike to resist Yong Kai and prevent him from entering Yongchang. Yong Kai then repeatedly wrote letters to them in an attempt to convince them that he was the rightful Administrator, but Lü Kai refuted Yong Kai's claims and managed to retain control over Yongchang because the people of Yongchang highly regarded and trusted him.[4]

Rebellions by Gao Ding and Zhu Bao

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Around 223, as Shu was still mourning Liu Bei's death, Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor and regent of Shu, decided to focus on domestic policy to promote stability and accumulate resources before using military force to quell the uprisings in the Nanzhong region. At the same time, he also sent Deng Zhi and Chen Zhen as diplomats to Wu to meet Sun Quan and convince him to make peace with Shu and rebuild the Shu–Wu alliance against their rival state, Wei.[2]

In the meantime, Gao Ding (高こう定じょう; or Gao Dingyuan 高だか定元さだもと), the chief of the Sou tribe (叟族) in Yuexi/Yuesui Commandery (越えつ巂郡; around present-day Xichang, Sichuan) heard about Yong Kai's rebellion and decided to join, so he killed Jiao Huang (焦こげ璜), the Administrator of Yuexi/Yuesui appointed by the Shu government. While Zhuge Liang was planning for a military campaign against the rebels, he appointed Gong Lu as the new Administrator of Yuexi/Yuesui and sent him there to make preparations in advance. However, Gong Lu ended up being killed by Gao Ding.[2]

Around the same time, Zhuge Liang also sent an official, Qi Xing (頎行), to conduct an investigation in Zangke Commandery (牂柯郡ぐん; around present-day Guiyang or Fuquan, Guizhou). Upon arriving in Zangke, Qi Xing detained all the lower-ranked officials for questioning. Zhu Bao (朱しゅ褒), the Shu-appointed Administrator (太守たいしゅ) of Zangke, had heard of the rebellions in the neighbouring Jianning and Yuexi/Yuesui commanderies, so he killed Qi Xing and joined the rebels.[2]

Involvement of Meng Huo and the Nanman

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After failing to capture Yongchang Commandery from Lü Kai and Wang Kang, Yong Kai turned to the Nanman tribes for help but they were unwilling to listen to him. Yong Kai then sought help from Meng Huo, a local leader with much influence and popularity among the Nanman. Meng Huo lied to the Nanman that Shu's government had made unreasonable demands from them and successfully incited them to rebel against Shu's rule.[2]

Pacifying Nanzhong

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In the spring of 225, after Shu rebuilt its alliance with Wu against their rival state Wei, Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor of Shu, personally led Shu imperial forces south to pacify the Nanzhong region and quell the rebellions. Wang Lian, Zhuge Liang's chief clerk, attempted to dissuade him from participating in the campaign, but Zhuge Liang insisted because he was worried that the Shu generals might not be competent enough to deal with the rebels on their own.[5]

Ma Su, a close aide of Zhuge Liang, suggested that they focus on psychological warfare (i.e. winning the hearts of the people in Nanzhong) rather than conventional warfare, so as to prevent rebellions from breaking out again. Zhuge Liang readily accepted Ma Su's advice.[6]

The Shu emperor Liu Shan awarded Zhuge Liang a ceremonial axe and held a grand ceremony to see him off on the campaign: attendants bearing parasols made of feathers walked in front of and behind him, an entourage of 60 huben imperial guards escorted him, while drums rolled and trumpets blared in the background.[7]

The Shu army travelled along a water route from Anshang County (安上あんじょう縣けん; present-day Pingshan County, Sichuan) to Yuexi/Yuesui Commandery and entered the Nanzhong region. In response, Gao Ding and Yong Kai constructed several forts in Maoniu (旄牛; present-day Hanyuan County, Sichuan), Dingze (定てい筰; present-day Yanyuan County, Sichuan) and Beishui (卑水; southeast of present-day Zhaojue County, Sichuan) counties. Zhuge Liang then led the Shu army to Beishui County, where he hoped the rebels would converge so that he could defeat all of them in one battle. During this time, Gao Ding's subordinate(s) killed Yong Kai.[8] Zhuge Liang then used the opportunity to strike back and defeated Gao Ding. Gao Ding was subsequently captured and executed by beheading on the orders of Zhuge Liang.

Zhuge Liang then ordered Ma Zhong to lead troops southeast from Bodao County (僰道縣けん; present-day Yibin, Sichuan) to attack Zangke Commandery, and Li Hui to lead troops southwest from Pingyi County (平たいら夷えびす縣けん; northeast of present-day Bijie, Guizhou) to attack Jianning Commandery. When Li Hui reached Kunming, he lost contact with Zhuge Liang and ended up being surrounded by the rebels, who had twice as many men as he did. Li Hui then lied to the rebels, saying that he actually wanted to join them. Just as the rebels believed him and lowered their guard, he used the opportunity to strike back and move south to Panjiang (槃江) to meet up with Ma Zhong, who had just defeated Zhu Bao's rebel forces and recaptured Zangke. Ma Zhong and Li Hui's units rendezvoused with Zhuge Liang's main army[9] and prepared to attack Meng Huo, who incorporated the remnants of the rebel forces into his own.[10]

Zhuge Liang knew that Meng Huo was popular and respected among the locals in the Nanzhong region, so he wanted to let him live. After Meng Huo was captured, Zhuge Liang showed him around the Shu camp and asked him what he thought. Meng Huo replied: "Before this, I knew nothing about your army, which was why I lost. Now that you have shown me around your camp, I know the conditions of your army and will be able to defeat you easily." Zhuge Liang laughed, released him and allowed him to return for another battle. The same cycle repeated for a total of seven times. On the seventh time, Meng Huo surrendered and told Zhuge Liang: "Sir, you have shown me Heaven's might. The people of the south will never rebel again." Zhuge Liang then led his forces towards Dian Lake in triumph.[11][12]

Aftermath

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After pacifying the four commanderies of Yizhou (益えき州しゅう; a.k.a. Jianning 建たて寧やすし), Yongchang (永昌えいしょう), Zangke (牂柯) and Yuexi/Yuesui (越えつ巂), Zhuge Liang reformed the administrative divisions to create another two commanderies, Yunnan (雲南うんなん) and Xinggu (興きょう古いにしえ), to improve the quality of the local governments in the Nanzhong region. He wanted to allow the people to self-govern those lands instead of appointing non-locals as the governors. He pointed out the problems with leaving non-locals in charge: The people in Nanzhong had recently lost their loved ones in the battles and might still harbour bitter feelings towards the Shu government; if they had non-locals to govern them, they might feel even more resentful and choose to rebel again; if non-locals were put in charge, the Shu government would need to station troops in the area to protect them.[13][14]

Before completely withdrawing all Shu soldiers from the Nanzhong region, Zhuge Liang told Meng Huo and the other local leaders that he only required them to pay tribute to the Shu government in the form of gold, silver, oxen, warhorses, etc. He appointed locals such as Li Hui (from Jianning Commandery) and Lü Kai (from Yongchang Commandery) as commandery administrators. These commandery administrators were different from their predecessors in the sense that they only served as representatives of the Shu government in the region; the locals were governed by their respective local leaders and tribal chiefs.[15]

More than ten thousand families of the Qiang (羌) tribes along with other strong foreigners from Nanzhong clans were relocated deeper into the Shu region and reorganized into five divisions. Since no enemy could resist them, they were nicknamed the "Flying Army" (無む當とう飛ひ軍ぐん). The rest of the foreigners were divided under the great clans of Nanzhong, those were: Jiao (焦こげ), Yong (雍), Lou (婁), Cuan (爨), Meng (孟はじめ), Liang (量りょう), Mao (毛け) and Li (李り). Furthermore, they were put under the command of the "Five Commandants" (五ご部ぶ) also called the "Five Lords" (五ご子し). The people of Nanzhong referred to them as the "Four Clans" (四姓しせい) and the "Five Lords" (五ご子し).[16]

Since many among the foreigners didn't want to serve under them or enrich these great clans. The local prefects puts forward the policy to commerce with them gold and silk. Also, encourage trading to persuade those people to develop themselves as family division with many among them securing important hereditary positions. This policy motivates the tribal people to gather rare resources and progressively brought them under the control of the Han government until they became Han subjects.[17]

After his campaign, Zhuge Liang recruited many talented individuals among the foreign leaders such as Cuan Xi (爨習) of Jianning Commandery, Meng Yan (孟はじめ琰) of Zhuti Commandery and Meng Huo who became his subordinates. Cuan Xi’s highest office was General Who Commands The Army (領りょう軍ぐん將軍しょうぐん), Meng Yan was General Who Supports the Han (輔漢將軍しょうぐん) while Meng Huo was Assistant to the Imperial Counsellor (御ご史し中ちゅう丞すすむ).[18]

Many resources were taken from Nanzhong such as gold, silver, cinnabar and lacquer while plow oxen and war horses were used to support the army and the State. Moreover, the commanders often recruited soldiers among the local people.[19]

The people in Nanzhong never rebelled against Shu rule again for as long as Zhuge Liang was still alive.[20] Historical books show that there were occasional revolts in this area. However, the rebellion in the region was quelled at the local government level appointed by Zhuge Liang, unlike before.[21] In addition, Zhuge Liang's expedition was generally successful, given the record that local influential people who were cooperative with Shu Han stabilized the area and provided Shu Han with abundant supplies and manpower.[22]

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

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Although historical records mentioned that Zhuge Liang captured and released Meng Huo a total of seven times throughout the campaign, no details were provided. The 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the events before and during the Three Kingdoms period, spends a total of about four-and-a-half chapters (87 to 91) fleshing out the details of each of the seven battles. It includes numerous fictional characters associated with Meng Huo, such as Lady Zhurong (Meng Huo's wife), Meng You (Meng Huo's brother) and other Nanman chieftains such as King Mulu and King Duosi. Apart from this, in the novel, the Shu generals Zhao Yun, Wei Yan and Ma Dai actively participate in the campaign, even though historically there is no mention about their involvement.

  1. First battle: Zhao Yun leads his troops to attack Meng Huo and defeats his army. Wei Yan captures Meng Huo and brings him before Zhuge Liang. When Meng Huo complains that he was captured through trickery, Zhuge Liang releases him and allows him to return for another battle.
  2. Second battle: Meng Huo builds a series of fortifications across a river and taunts the Shu forces to attack him. Ma Dai cuts off his supply route and kills Jinhuan Sanjie, Meng Huo's subordinate who was protecting the river fortifications. Ahuinan and Dongtuna, two of Meng Huo's subordinates, betray their master, capture him and hand him over as a prisoner to Zhuge Liang. Like before, Meng Huo complains that he did not had a chance to fight the enemy fair and square. Zhuge Liang then shows him around the Shu camp before releasing him.
  3. Third battle: Meng Huo's younger brother Meng You pretends to surrender to Zhuge Liang and promises to lure Meng Huo into a trap. However, Zhuge Liang knows it is a ploy so he also pretends to play along, captures both of them in the trap, and releases them again.
  4. Fourth battle: When Meng Huo hears that the Shu army is planning to retreat, he gathers all his troops and attacks the Shu camp. He falls into the pit traps in the camp and ends up being captured again. Zhuge Liang releases him once more.
  5. Fifth battle: Meng Huo, having learnt his lesson from his previous defeats, adopts a more defensive stance. He lures the Shu forces into the poisonous marshes around the caves of his ally, King Duosi. However, Zhuge Liang manages to avoid the dangers of the marshes with the help of Meng Jie, Meng Huo's elder brother who does not participate in Meng Huo's rebellion against Shu. The Shu forces then defeat and kill King Duosi and capture Meng Huo again. Like before, Zhuge Liang releases Meng Huo again.
  6. Sixth battle: Meng Huo's wife Lady Zhurong joins the battle and captures the Shu generals Ma Zhong and Zhang Ni. Ma Dai defeats Lady Zhurong later and captures her. Zhuge Liang releases Lady Zhurong in exchange for Ma Zhong and Zhang Ni. Meng Huo then turns to his ally King Mulu for help. King Mulu has the ability to control wild animals and direct them in battle. However, the Shu army is prepared for this and they use fire-breathing contraptions (referred to as juggernauts in some translations) to scare away the animals. King Mulu is killed in battle and Meng Huo ends up being captured again, but Zhuge Liang releases him once more.
  7. Seventh battle: Meng Huo turns to another ally, Wutugu, for help. Wutugu's soldiers wear a special type of armour made of rattan which can deflect sharp blades and arrows. Zhuge Liang comes up with a plan for Wei Yan to lure Wutugu and his army into a trap in a valley, where explosives and fire traps have been set. The flammable rattan armour catches fire easily and Wutugu and his army completely perish in the valley. Meng Huo is captured once more. This time, he feels ashamed of himself and decides to surrender to Zhuge Liang and swear allegiance to Shu for the rest of his life.
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A popular legend tells of how Zhuge Liang invented the mantou, a kind of steamed bun, during this campaign. It probably rose from the fact that the name mantou (馒头; 饅頭まんじゅう; mántóu) is homonymous with mantou (蛮头; 蠻頭; mántóu; 'barbarian's head'). The story tells that, on the way back after the campaign, Zhuge Liang and the Shu army came to a swift-flowing river which defied all attempts to cross it. Locals informed him that he must sacrifice 50 men and throw their heads into the river to appease the river deity, who will then allow them to cross. As Zhuge Liang did not want to cause further bloodshed, he ordered buns shaped roughly like human heads – round with a flat base – to be made and thrown into the river. After a successful crossing, he named the bun "barbarian's head", which evolved into the present-day mantou.[citation needed]

References

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  1. ^ Sima (1084), vol. 69.
  2. ^ a b c d e Sima (1084), vol. 70.
  3. ^ (都みやこ護まもる李り嚴いわお與あずか闓書六ろく紙し，解かい喻利害りがい，闓但答こたえ一いち紙し曰：「蓋ぶた聞天無む二に日にち，土ど無む二王におう，今こん天下てんか鼎立ていりつ，正せい朔さく有三ゆうぞう，是ぜ以遠いえん人じん惶惑，不知ふち所しょ歸き也。」其桀慢如此。) Sanguozhi vol. 43.
  4. ^ (... 而郡太守たいしゅ改易かいえき，凱與府ふ丞すすむ蜀しょく郡ぐん王おう伉帥厲吏民みん，閉境拒こばめ闓。闓數移うつり檄げき永昌えいしょう，稱しょう說せつ云云うんぬん。凱荅檄げき曰：「天てん降くだ喪も亂みだれ， ... 惟おもんみ將軍しょうぐん察焉。」凱威恩おん內著，為ため郡中ぐんちゅう所信しょしん，故こ能のう全ぜん其節。) Sanguozhi vol. 43.
  5. ^ (時とき南方なんぽう諸しょ郡ぐん不ふ賔，諸しょ葛かずら亮あきら將はた自じ征せい之の，連れん諫以為ため「此不毛げ之の地ち，疫癘えきれい之の鄉さと，不ふ宜むべ以一國こく之の望もち，冒險ぼうけん而行」。亮あきら慮おもんばか諸しょ將しょう才ざい不ふ及己，意欲いよく必往，而連言れんげん輒懇至いたり，故こ停留ていりゅう者しゃ乆之。) Sanguozhi vol. 41.
  6. ^ (漢かん諸しょ葛かずら亮あきら率りつ衆しゅ討雍闓，參まいり軍馬ぐんば謖送之の數すう十じゅう里さと。亮あきら曰：「雖共謀きょうぼう之の歷年れきねん，今こん可か更さら惠良えら規ぶんまわし。」謖曰：「南中なんちゅう恃其險けわし遠とお，不服ふふく久ひさ矣；雖今日び破やぶ之これ，明日あした復ふく反はん耳みみ。今こん公方くぼう傾國けいこく北きた伐き以事強きょう賊ぞく，彼かれ知ち官かん勢いきおい內虛，其叛亦また速そく。若わか殄盡遺のこ類るい以除後患こうかん，旣すんで非ひ仁者じんしゃ之の情じょう，且又不可ふか倉卒そうそつ也。夫おっと用兵ようへい之の道みち，攻おさむ心こころ為ため上じょう，攻おさむ城じょう為ため下か，心しん戰せん為ため上じょう，兵へい戰せん為ため下か，願ねがい公おおやけ服ふく其心而已。」亮あきら納おさめ其言。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 70.
  7. ^ (詔みことのり賜たまもの亮あきら金きん鈇鉞一いち具ぐ，曲きょく蓋ぶた一いち，前後ぜんご羽わ葆鼓吹こすい各かく一部いちぶ，虎とら賁六ろく十じゅう人にん。事こと在ざい亮あきら集しゅう。) Zhuge Liang Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 35.
  8. ^ (及丞相しょう亮あきら南みなみ征討せいとう闓，旣すんで發はつ在ざい道みち，而闓已やめ為ため高だか定じょう部ぶ曲きょく所しょ殺ころせ。) Sanguozhi vol. 43.
  9. ^ (先さき主ぬし薨，高こう定じょう恣ほしいまま睢於越えつ嶲，雍闓跋扈ばっこ於建寧やすし，朱しゅ襃反叛於䍧牱。丞相じょうしょう亮あきら南みなみ征せい，先さき由ゆかり越えつ嶲，而恢案あん道どう向こう建たて寧やすし。諸しょ縣けん大だい相しょう糾合きゅうごう，圍かこえ恢軍於昆明あかり。時とき恢衆少敵しょうてき倍ばい，又また未み得とく亮あきら聲ごえ息いき，紿謂南みなみ人じん曰：「官軍かんぐん糧かて盡つき，欲よく規ただし退すさ還かえ，吾われ中間なかま乆斥鄉里きょうり，乃今得とく旋，不能ふのう復ふく北きた，欲ほし還かえ與あずか汝なんじ等とう同どう計けい謀はかりごと，故こ以誠相しょう告つげ。」南みなみ人じん信之のぶゆき，故こ圍かこえ守もり怠だる緩なる。於是恢出擊げき，大破たいは之の，追つい犇逐北きた，南みなみ至いたる槃江，東ひがし接せっ䍧牱，與あずか亮あきら聲こえ勢ぜい相しょう連れん。) Sanguozhi vol. 43.
  10. ^ (漢かん諸しょ葛かずら亮あきら至いたり南中なんちゅう，所在しょざい戰捷せんしょう。亮あきら由ゆかり越えつ巂入，斬き雍闓及高定じょう。使つかい庲降督とく益えき州しゅう李り恢由益えき州しゅう入いり，門下もんか督とく巴ともえ西にし馬うま忠由ただよし牂柯入いれ，擊破げきは諸しょ縣けん，復ふく與あずか亮あきら合ごう。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 70.
  11. ^ (漢かん晉すすむ春秋しゅんじゅう曰：亮あきら至いたり南中なんちゅう，所在しょざい戰捷せんしょう。聞孟獲え者しゃ，為ため夷えびす、漢かん所しょ服ふく，募つの生なま致之。旣得きとく，使つかい觀かん於營陣じん之の間あいだ，曰：「此軍何なん如？」獲え對たい曰：「向むこう者しゃ不知ふち虛實きょじつ，故こ敗はい。今いま蒙こうむ賜たまもの觀かん看み營陣，若わか祇如此，即そく定てい易えき勝しょう耳みみ。」亮あきら笑わらい，縱たて使し更さら戰せん，七なな縱たて七なな禽，而亮猶なお遣や獲え。獲え止とめ不ふ去さ，曰：「公おおやけ，天てん威い也，南みなみ人じん不ふ復ふく反はん矣。」遂とげ至いたり滇池。) Han Jin Chunqiu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 35.
  12. ^ (孟はじめ獲え收おさむ闓餘衆しゅ以拒亮あきら。獲え素す為ため夷えびす、漢かん所しょ服ふく，亮あきら募つの生なま致之，旣得きとく，使つかい觀かん於營陳ひね之の間あいだ，問もん曰：「此軍何なん如？」獲え曰：「向むこう者しゃ不知ふち虛實きょじつ，故こ敗はい。今いま蒙こうむ賜たまもの觀かん營陳，若わか祇如此，卽そく定てい易えき勝しょう耳みみ。」亮あきら笑わらい，縱たて使し更さら戰せん。七縱七禽而亮猶遣獲，獲え止とめ不ふ去さ，曰：「公おおやけ，天てん威い也，南みなみ人じん不ふ復ふく反はん矣！」亮あきら遂とげ至いたり滇池。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 70.
  13. ^ (南中なんちゅう平ひらめ，皆みな即そく其渠率りつ而用之の。或ある以諫亮あきら，亮あきら曰：「若わか留とめ外人がいじん，則のり當とう留とめ兵へい，兵へい留とめ則そく無む所しょ食しょく，一いち不易ふえき也；加か夷新えびすしん傷きず破やぶ，父兄ふけい死し喪も，留とめ外人がいじん而無兵へい者しゃ，必成ひっせい禍か患，二に不易ふえき也；又また夷えびす累るい有ゆう廢はい殺ころせ之これ罪ざい，自じ嫌いや釁重，若わか留とめ外人がいじん，終おわり不ふ相あい信しんじ，三さん不易ふえき也；今こん吾われ欲ほっ使し不ふ留とめ兵へい，不運ふうん糧かて，而綱紀こうき粗そ定じょう，夷えびす、漢かん粗あら安やす故こ耳みみ。」) Han Jin Chunqiu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 35.
  14. ^ (益えき州しゅう、永昌えいしょう、牂柯、越えつ巂四よん郡ぐん皆みな平ひらめ，亮あきら卽そく其渠率りつ而用之の。或ある以諫亮あきら，亮あきら曰：「若わか留とめ外人がいじん，則のり當とう留とめ兵へい，兵へい留とめ則そく無む所しょ食しょく，一いち不易ふえき也；加か夷新えびすしん傷きず破やぶ，父兄ふけい死し喪も，留とめ外人がいじん而無兵へい者しゃ，必成ひっせい禍か患，二に不易ふえき也；又また，夷えびす累るい有ゆう廢はい殺ころせ之これ罪ざい，自じ嫌いや釁重，若わか留とめ外人がいじん，終おわり不ふ相あい信しんじ，三さん不易ふえき也。今こん吾われ欲ほっ使し不ふ留とめ兵へい，不運ふうん糧かて，而綱紀こうき粗そ定じょう，夷えびす、漢かん粗あら安やす故こ耳みみ。」) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 70.
  15. ^ (亮あきら於是悉收其俊傑しゅんけつ孟はじめ獲え等とう以為官かん屬ぞく，出で其金、銀ぎん、丹に、漆うるし、耕こう牛うし、戰せん馬ば以給軍ぐん國之くにゆき用よう。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 70.
  16. ^ (移うつり南中なんちゅう勁卒、青あお羌萬餘あまり家か於蜀，為ため五ご部ぶ，所しょ當とう無む前まえ，軍ぐん號ごう為ため飛ひ軍ぐん。分ぶん其羸弱じゃく配はい大だい姓せい焦こげ、雍、婁、爨、孟はじめ、量りょう、毛もう、李り為ため部ぶ曲きょく，置おけ五部ごへ都と尉じょう，號ごう五ご子し。故こ南みなみ人じん言げん四姓しせい五ご子し也。) Huayang Guo Zhi vol. 4.
  17. ^ (以夷多た剛つよし很，不ふ賓まろうど大だい姓せい富豪ふごう；乃勸令れい出金しゅっきん帛，聘策惡あく夷えびす為ため家か部ぶ曲きょく，得とく多た者しゃ奕世襲せしゅう官かん。於是夷えびす人じん貪むさぼ貨物かもつ，以漸服屬ふくぞく於漢，成なる夷えびす漢かん部ぶ曲きょく。) Huayang Guo Zhi vol. 4.
  18. ^ (亮あきら收おさむ其俊傑しゅんけつ建たて寧やすし爨習，朱しゅ提ひさげ孟はじめ琰及獲え為ため官かん屬ぞく，習官至いたり領りょう軍ぐん，琰，輔漢將軍しょうぐん，獲え，御ご史し中ちゅう丞すすむ。) Huayang Guo Zhi vol. 4.
  19. ^ (出で其金、銀ぎん、丹に、漆うるし，耕こう牛うし、戰せん馬ば，給きゅう軍國ぐんこく之の用もちい，都と督とく常用じょうよう重人しげと。) Huayang Guo Zhi vol. 4.
  20. ^ (自じ是ぜ終おわり亮あきら之これ世せい，夷えびす不ふ復ふく反はん。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 70.
  21. ^ Sanguozhi vol. 43.
  22. ^ Huayang Guo Zhi Vol. 4.
  • Chang, Qu (c. 4th century). Chronicles of Huayang (Huayang Guo Zhi).
  • Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
  • Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
  • Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
  • Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian.
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