Records of the Grand Historian
Author | Sima Qian |
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Original title |
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Country | China |
Language | Classical Chinese |
Subject | History |
Publication date | c. 91 BC |
Records of the Grand Historian | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Simplified Chinese | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | "Scribal Records" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | "Records of the Grand Historian" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Records of the Grand Historian, also known by its Chinese name Shiji, is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's Twenty-Four Histories. The Records were written in the late 2nd century BC to early 1st century BC by the historian Sima Qian, whose father Sima Tan had begun it several decades earlier. The work covers a 2,500-year period from the age of the legendary Yellow Emperor to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han in the author's own time, and describes the world as it was known to the Chinese of the Western Han dynasty.[1]
The Records has been called a "foundational text in Chinese civilization".[2] After Confucius and Qin Shi Huang, "Sima Qian was one of the creators of Imperial China, not least because by providing definitive biographies, he virtually created the two earlier figures."[3] The Records set the model for all subsequent dynastic histories of China. In contrast to Western historiographical conventions, the Records do not treat history as "a continuous, sweeping narrative", but rather break it up into smaller, overlapping units dealing with famous leaders, individuals, and major topics of significance.[4]
History[edit]
Title[edit]
The original title of the work, as given by the author in the postface, is Taishigongshu (
Textual history[edit]
The work that became Records of the Grand Historian was begun by Sima Tan, who was Grand Historian (Tàishǐ
Little is known about the Records' early reception and circulation.[12] Several 1st-century BC authors, such as the scholar Chu Shaosun (褚少
The first commentaries to the Records date from the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589) and the early Tang dynasty (618–907).[11] Most historical editions of the Records included the commentaries of Pei Yin (裴駰, 5th century), Sima Zhen (early 8th century), and Zhang Shoujie (
Manuscripts[edit]
There are two known surviving fragments of pre-Tang dynasty Records manuscripts, both of which are held in the Ishiyama-dera temple in Ōtsu, Japan. Portions of at least nine Tang dynasty manuscripts survive: three fragments discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts in the early 20th century, and six manuscripts preserved in Japanese temples and museums, such as the Kōzan-ji temple in Kyoto and the Tōyō Bunko museum in Tokyo. Several woodblock printed editions of the Records survive, the earliest of which date to the Song dynasty (960–1279).[13]
Contents[edit]
In all, the Records is about 526,500 Chinese characters long, making it four times longer than Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War and longer than the Old Testament.[16][17]
Sima Qian conceived and composed his work in self-contained units, with a good deal of repetition between them. His manuscript was written on bamboo slips with about 24 to 36 characters each, and assembled into bundles of around 30 slips. Even after the manuscript was allowed to circulate or be copied, the work would have circulated as bundles of bamboo slips or small groups. Endymion Wilkinson calculates that there were probably between 466 and 700 bundles, whose total weight would have been 88–132 pounds (40–60 kg), which would have been difficult to access and hard to transport. Later copies on silk would have been much lighter, but also expensive and rare. Until the work was transferred to paper many centuries later, circulation would have been difficult and piecemeal, which accounts for many of the errors and variations in the text.[17]
Sima Qian organized the chapters of Records of the Grand Historian into five categories, which each comprise a section of the book.
"Basic Annals"[edit]
The "Basic Annals" (běnjì
"Tables"[edit]
Chapters 13 to 22 are the "Tables" (biǎo
"Treatises"[edit]
The "Treatises" (shū
"Hereditary Houses"[edit]
The "Hereditary Houses" (shìjiā
"Ranked Biographies"[edit]
The "Ranked Biographies" (lièzhuàn
Style[edit]
Unlike subsequent official historical texts that adopted Confucian doctrine, proclaimed the divine rights of the emperors, and degraded any failed claimant to the throne, Sima Qian's more liberal and objective prose has been renowned and followed by poets and novelists. Most volumes of Liezhuan are vivid descriptions of events and persons. Sima Qian sought out stories from those who might have closer knowledge of certain historical events, using them as sources to balance the reliability and accuracy of historical records. For instance, the material on Jing Ke's attempt at assassinating the King of Qin incorporates an eye-witness account by Xia Wuju (
It has been observed that the diplomatic Sima Qian has a way of accentuating the positive in his treatment of rulers in the Basic Annals, but slipping negative information into other chapters, and so his work must be read as a whole to obtain full information. For example, the information that Liu Bang (later Emperor Gaozu of Han), in a desperate attempt to escape in a chase from Xiang Yu's men, pushed his own children off his carriage to lighten it, is not given in the emperor's biography, but in the biography of Xiang Yu. He is also careful to balance the negative with the positive, for example, in the biography of Empress Dowager Lu which contains startling accounts of her cruelty, he points out at the end that, despite whatever her personal life may have been, her rule brought peace and prosperity to the country.[22]
Source materials[edit]
Sima's family were hereditary historians to the Han emperor. Sima Qian's father Sima Tan served as Grand Historian, and Sima Qian succeeded to his position. Thus he had access to the early Han dynasty archives, edicts, and records. Sima Qian was a methodical, skeptical historian who had access to ancient books, written on bamboo and wooden slips, from before the time of the Han dynasty. Many of the sources he used did not survive. He not only used archives and imperial records, but also interviewed people and traveled around China to verify information. In his first chapter, "Annals of the Five Emperors", he writes,[23]
余 嘗西至 空 桐 ,北 過 涿鹿,東漸 於海,南 浮江淮矣,至 長老 皆 各 往往 稱 黃 帝 、堯、舜 之 處 ,風教 固 殊 焉,總 之 不離 古文 者 近 是 。
I myself have travelled west as far as Kongtong, north past Zhuolu, east to the sea, and in the south I have sailed the Yangtze and Huai Rivers. The elders and old men of these various lands frequently pointed out to me the places where the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun had lived, and in these places the manners and customs seemed quite different. In general those of their accounts which do not differ from the ancient texts seem to be near to the truth.— Sima Qian, translation by Burton Watson[24]
The Grand Historian used The Annals of the Five Emperors (
In the 19th chapter, he writes, "I have occasion to read over the records of enfeoffment and come to the case of Wu Qian, the marquis of Bian...." (The father of Marquis Bian, Wu Rui, was named king (wang) of Changsha for his loyalty to Gaozu.) In his chapter on the patriotic minister and poet Qu Yuan, Sima Qian writes, "I have read [Qu Yuan's works] Li Sao, Tianwen ("Heaven Asking"), Zhaohun (summoning the soul), and Ai Ying (Lament for Ying)". In the 62nd chapter, "Biography of Guan and of Yan", he writes, "I have read Guan's Mu Min (
Sima Qian wrote of the problems with incomplete, fragmentary and contradictory sources. For example, he mentioned in the preface to chapter 15 that the chronicle records of the feudal states kept in the Zhou dynasty's archive were burnt by Qin Shi Huang because they contained criticisms and ridicule of the Qin state, and that the Qin annals were brief and incomplete.[25] In the 13th chapter he mentioned that the chronologies and genealogies of different ancient texts "disagree and contradict each other throughout". In his 18th chapter, Sima Qian writes, "I have set down only what is certain, and in doubtful cases left a blank."[5]
Reliability and accuracy[edit]
Scholars have questioned the historicity of legendary kings of the ancient periods given by Sima Qian. Sima Qian began the Shiji with an account of the five rulers of supreme virtue, the Five Emperors, who modern scholars, such as those from the Doubting Antiquity School, believe to be originally local deities of the peoples of ancient China.[26] Sima Qian sifted out elements of the supernatural and fantastic which seemed to contradict their existence as actual human monarchs, and was therefore criticized for turning myths and folklore into sober history.[26]
However, according to Joseph Needham, who wrote in 1954 on Sima Qian's accounts of the kings of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC):
It was commonly maintained that Ssuma Chhien [Sima Qian] could not have adequate historical materials for his account of what had happened more than a thousand years earlier. One may judge of the astonishment of many, therefore, when it appeared that no less than twenty-three of the thirty rulers' name were to be clearly found on the indisputably genuine Anyang bones. It must be, therefore, that Ssuma Chhien [Sima Qian] did have fairly reliable materials at his disposal—a fact which underlines once more the deep historical-mindedness of the Chinese—and that the Shang dynasty is perfectly acceptable.
— Joseph Needham[27]
While the king names in Sima Qian's history of the Shang dynasty are supported by inscriptions on the oracle bones, there is, as yet, no archaeological corroboration of Sima Qian's history of the Xia dynasty.
There are also discrepancies of fact such as dates between various portions of the work. This may be a result of Sima Qian's use of different source texts.[28]
Transmission and supplementation by other writers[edit]
After ca. 91 BC, the more-or-less completed manuscript was hidden in the residence of the author's daughter, Sima Ying (
The changes in the manuscript of the Shiji during this hiatus have always been disputed among scholars. That the text was more or less complete by ca. 91 BC is established in the Letter to Ren'an (
After his death (presumably only a few years later), few people had the opportunity to see the whole work. However, various additions were still made to it. The historian Liu Zhiji reported the names of a total of fifteen scholars supposed to have added material to the Shiji during the period after the death of Sima Qian. Only the additions by Chu Shaosun (褚少
Editions[edit]
The earliest extant copy of Records of the Grand Historian, handwritten, was made during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420–589 AD). The earliest printed edition, called Shiji jijie (
In modern times, the Zhonghua Book Company in Beijing has published the book in both simplified Chinese for mass consumption and traditional Chinese for scholarly study. The 1959 (2nd ed., 1982) Sanjiazhu edition in traditional Chinese (based upon the Jinling Publishing House edition, see below) contains commentaries interspersed among the main text and is considered to be an authoritative modern edition.
The most well-known editions of the Shiji (all woodblock printed) are:
Year | Publisher | Notes |
---|---|---|
Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279) | Huang Shanfu | Abbreviated as the Huang Shanfu edition ( |
Ming dynasty, between the times of the Jiajing and Wanli Emperors (between 1521 and 1620) | The Northern and Southern Imperial Academy | Published in 21 Shi. Abbreviated as the Jian edition (监本) |
Ming dynasty | Bibliophile Mao Jin ( |
Published in 17 Shi. Abbreviated as the Mao Ke edition ( |
Qing dynasty, in the time of the Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799) | Wu Yingdian | Published in the Twenty-Four Histories, abbreviated as the Wu Yingdian edition ( |
Qing dynasty, in the time of the Tongzhi Emperor (1856–1875) | Jinling Publishing House (in Nanjing) | Proofreading and copy editing done by Zhang Wenhu. Published with the Sanjiazhu commentaries, 130 volumes in total. Abbreviated as the Jinling Ju or Jinling Publishing edition ( |
Notable translations[edit]
English[edit]
- Herbert J. Allen, Ssŭma Ch‘ien's Historical Records, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1894, p. 269-294; 1895, p. 93-110, 601-611, available online. (The first English translation of the first three chapters).
- Watson, Burton, trans. (1961). Records of the Grand Historian of China. New York: Columbia University Press.
- Second edition, 1993 (Records of the Grand Historian). Translates roughly 90 out of 130 chapters.
- Qin Dynasty, ISBN 978-0-231-08169-6.
- Han Dynasty, Volume 1, ISBN 978-0-231-08165-8.
- Han Dynasty, Volume 2, ISBN 978-0-231-08167-2.
- Second edition, 1993 (Records of the Grand Historian). Translates roughly 90 out of 130 chapters.
- Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang (1974), Records of the Historians. Hong Kong: Commercial Press.
- Reprinted by University Press of the Pacific, 2002. Contains biographies of Confucius and Laozi. ISBN 978-0835106184
- Raymond Stanley Dawson (1994). Historical Records. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Reprinted, 2007 (The First Emperor : Selections from the Historical Records). Translates only Qin-related material. ISBN 9780199574391
- William H. Nienhauser, Jr., ed. (1994– ). The Grand Scribe's Records, 9 vols. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Ongoing translation, and being translated out of order. As of 2020, translates 92 out of 130 chapters.
- I. The Basic Annals of Pre-Han China (2018), ISBN 978-0-253-03855-5.
- II. The Basic Annals of the Han Dynasty (2018), ISBN 978-0-253-03909-5.
- V. part 1. The Hereditary Houses of Pre-Han China (2006), ISBN 978-0-253-34025-2.
- VII. The Memoirs of Pre-Han China (1995), ISBN 978-0-253-34027-6.
- VIII. The Memoirs of Han China, Part I (2008), ISBN 978-0-253-34028-3.
- IX. The Memoirs of Han China, Part II (2010), ISBN 978-0-253-35590-4.
- X. The Memoirs of Han China, Part III (2016), ISBN 978-0-253-01931-8.
- XI. The Memoirs of Han China, Part IV (2019), ISBN 978-0-253-04610-9.
Non-English[edit]
- (in French) Chavannes, Édouard, trans. (1895–1905). Les Mémoires historiques de Se-ma Ts'ien [The Historical Memoirs of Sima Qian], 6 vols.; rpt. (1967–1969) 7 vols., Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve. Left uncompleted at Chavannes' death. William Nienhauser calls it a "landmark" and "the standard by which all subsequent renditions... must be measured."[32]. Accessible online at Se-ma Ts'ien: Les Mémoires Historiques - Bibliothèque Chine ancienne and La bibliothèque numérique Les Classiques des sciences sociales - Collection «Les auteur(e)s classiques» - La Chine ancienne - Les auteurs chinois.
- (in French) Chavannes, Édouard, Maxime Kaltenmark Jacques Pimpaneau, translators. (2015) Les Mémoires historiques de Se-Ma Ts'ien [The Historical Memoirs of Sima Qian], 9 vols.; Éditions You Feng, Paris. This is the completed full translation of the Shiji
- (in Russian) full translation in 9 vols: Vyatkin, Rudolf V., trans. . Istoricheskie Zapiski (Shi-czi) [Исторические записки (Ши-цзи)], 8 vols. Moscow: Nauka (1972–2002); 9th volume: Vyatkin, Anatoly R., trans. (2010), Moscow: Vostochnaya literatura. This is the first complete translation into any European language. Full text available online: Сыма Цянь. Исторические записки (Ши цзи).
- (in Mandarin Chinese) Yang, Zhongxian 杨钟贤; Hao, Zhida 郝志达, eds. (1997). Quanjiao quanzhu quanyi quanping Shiji
全校 全 注 全 译全评史记 [Shiji: Fully Collated, Annotated, Translated, and Evaluated], 6 vols. Tianjin: Tianjin guji chubanshe. - (in Mandarin Chinese) Yang, Yanqi 杨燕
起 ; eds. (2001). “Shi Ji Quan Yi"史 记全译, 12 vols. Guiyang: Guizhou renmin chubanshe 贵州人民 出版 社 . - (in Mandarin Chinese) Xu, Jialu 许嘉璐; An, Pingqiu
安平 秋 , eds. (2003). Ershisishi quanyi: Shiji二 十 四 史 全 译:史 记, 2 vols. Beijing: Hanyudacidian chubanshe. - (in Japanese) Mizusawa, Toshitada
水澤 利忠 ; Yoshida, Kenkō吉田 賢 抗 , trans. (1996–1998). Shiki史記 [Shiji], 12 vols. Tokyo: Kyūko. - (in Polish) Mieczysław J. Künstler, trans. (2000). Sy-ma Ts'ien, Syn smoka. Fragmenty Zapisków historyka, Warszawa: Czytelnik; ISBN 83-07-02780-2. Selected chapters only.
- (in Danish) Svane, Gunnar O., trans. (2007). Historiske Optegnelser: Kapitlerne 61-130, Biografier 1-70. Aarhus: Aarhus Universitetsforlag.
- (in German) Gregor Kneussel, Alexander Saechtig, trans. (2016). Aus den Aufzeichnungen des Chronisten, 3 vols. Beijing: Verlag für fremdsprachige Literatur (Foreign Languages Press); ISBN 978-7-119-09676-6.
- (in Italian) Cannata, Vincenzo, translator. (2024) Memorie Storiche di Sima Qian [Historical Memoirs of Sima Qian], 4 vols.; Luni Editrice, Milano This is the completed full translation of the Shiji; ISBN 9-788879-848220.
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
- ^ Nienhauser (2011), pp. 463-464.
- ^ Hardy (1999), p. xiii.
- ^ Hardy (1999), pp. xiii, 3.
- ^ Durrant (1986), p. 689.
- ^ a b Sima, Qian (December 1992). Records of the grand historian. Han dynasty. Translated by Watson, Burton (Rev. ed.). Hong Kong: Columbia University Press (published 1993). ISBN 0231081642. OCLC 26674054.
- ^ Sima, Qian (1994). Historical records. Translated by Dawson, Raymond Stanley. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192831151. OCLC 28799204.
- ^ Sima, Qian (1994). The grand scribe's records. Translated by Nienhauser, William H.; Cheng, Tsai Fa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253340217. OCLC 30508745.
- ^ Sima, Qian (1969). Records of the historian; chapters from the Shih chi of Ssu-ma Ch'ien . Translated by Watson, Burton; Takigawa, Kametarō. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231033214. OCLC 332024.
- ^ Hulsewé (1993), pp. 405–06.
- ^ Durrant (2001), pp. 502–03.
- ^ a b c Knechtges (2014), p. 897.
- ^ Kern (2010), p. 102.
- ^ a b Knechtges (2014), p. 898.
- ^ Hulsewé (1993), p. 407.
- ^ Hulsewé (1993), p. 409.
- ^ Hardy, Grant (1994). "Can an Ancient Chinese Historian Contribute to Modern Western Theory? The Multiple Narratives of Ssu-Ma Ch'ien". History and Theory. 33 (1): 20–38. doi:10.2307/2505650. JSTOR 2505650.
- ^ a b Wilkinson (2012), p. 708.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Wilkinson (2012), p. 706.
- ^ Watson (1958), pp. 111–112.
- ^ Shiji 130: 3319, cited in Wilkinson (2012), p. 706.
- ^ Watson (1958), pp. 191, 240.
- ^ Watson (1958), pp. 95–98.
- ^ "Annals of the Five Emperors"
五 帝 本紀 . ctext.org. Chinese Text Project.余 嘗西至 空 桐 ,北 過 涿鹿,東漸 於海,南 浮江淮矣,至 長老 皆 各 往往 稱 黃 帝 、堯、舜 之 處 ,風教 固 殊 焉,總 之 不離 古文 者 近 是 。 - ^ Watson (1958), p. 183.
- ^
六 國 年表 [Chronological table of the six kingdoms]. ctext.org. Chinese Text Project.秦 既 得意 ,燒 天下 詩書 ,諸侯 史記 尤 甚,為 其有所 刺 譏 也。詩書 所以 復 見 者 ,多 藏人 家 ,而史記 獨 藏 周 室 ,以故滅 。惜哉,惜哉!獨 有 秦 記 ,又 不 載 日月 ,其文略 不具 。 - ^ a b Watson (1958), pp. 16–17.
- ^ Needham, Joseph. (1954). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations. Cambridge University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-521-05799-X.
- ^ Watson (1958), p. 113.
- ^
報 任 少 卿 書 [Letter to Ren'an]. Wikisource (in Chinese).報 任 少 卿 書 :『上計 軒 轅 ,下 至 于茲,為 十 表 ,本紀 十 二 ,書 八 章 ,世 家 三 十 ,列傳 七 十 ,凡百 三 十 篇 。』 - ^ Watson (1958), pp. 56–67.
- ^ Hulsewé, A. F. P. (1979). China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. E. Brill, Leiden. pp. 8–25. ISBN 90-04-05884-2.
- ^ Classe, Olive, ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English. Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 1282. ISBN 9781884964367.
Sources[edit]
- Works cited
- Durrant, Stephen (1986). "Shih-chi
史記 ". In William H. Nienhauser Jr. (ed.). The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature, Vol. 1. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-32983-7. OCLC 11841260. - Durrant, Stephen (2001). "The Literary Features of Historical Writing". In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. pp. 493–510. ISBN 0-231-10984-9.
- Hardy, Grant (1999). Worlds of Bronze and Bamboo: Sima Qian's Conquest of History. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11304-5.
- Hulsewé, A. F. P. (1993). "Shih chi
史記 ". In Loewe, Michael (ed.). Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley, CA: Society for the Study of Early China; University of California, Berkeley. pp. 405–414. ISBN 1-55729-043-1. - Kern, Martin (2010). "Early Chinese literature, Beginnings through Western Han". In Owen, Stephen (ed.). The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1: To 1375. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–115. ISBN 978-0-521-11677-0.
- Knechtges, David R. (2014). "Shi ji
史記 ". In Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Tai-ping (eds.). Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature, A Reference Guide: Part Two. Leiden: Brill. pp. 897–904. ISBN 978-90-04-19240-9. - Nienhauser, William (2011). "Sima Qian and the Shiji". In Feldherr, Andrew; Hardy, Grant (eds.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600. Oxford University Press. pp. 463–484. ISBN 978-0-19-103678-1.
- Watson, Burton (1958). Ssu Ma Ch'ien Grand Historian Of China. Columbia University Press.
- Wilkinson, Endymion (2012). Chinese History: A New Manual. Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series 84. Cambridge, MA: Harvard-Yenching Institute; Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 978-0-674-06715-8.
Further reading[edit]
- Schaab-Hanke, Dorothee. Review of 'Politik und Geschichtsschreibung im alten China: Pan-ma i-t’ung
班 馬 異同 ' by Hans van Ess (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2014). T’oung Pao 102-1-3 (2016), pp. 225-235. - Yap, Joseph P, (2019). The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. ISBN 978-1792829154.
External links[edit]
- Xu Jialu (
許 嘉 璐); An Pingqiu (安平 秋 ), eds. (2004). Records of the Grand Historian, Original and Modern Chinese Translation (in Chinese). Century Publishing Group – via Internet Archive. - "Shiji"
史記 (in Chinese and English). Chinese Text Project. "Shiji (Simplified Chinese version)"史 记 (in Chinese and English). Chinese Text Project. - The Original Text in its Entirety (Chinese)
- CHINAKNOWLEDGE Shiji
史記 Records of the Grand Scribe. - Ssuma Ch'ien at Internet Sacred Text Archive. Chapters 1–3, Ssuma Ch'ien's Historical Records, translated by Herbert J. Allen:
- "Introductory Chapter" (1894), Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 26 (2): 269–295. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00143916. (text)
- "The Hsia Dynasty" (1895), Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 27 (1): 93–110. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00022784. (text)
- "The Yin Dynasty" (1895), Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 27 (3): 601–615. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00145083. (text)
- Part of chapter 63 The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East, Volume XII: Medieval China, ed. Charles F. Horne, 1917, pp. 396–398.