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Solon people

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The Solon people (simplified Chinese: 索さく伦; traditional Chinese: 索さく倫りん; pinyin: Suǒlún) are a subgroup of the Ewenki (Evenk) people of northeastern Asia. They live in China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and Heilongjiang Province, and constitute the majority of China's Ewenki.

Terminology and classification

[edit]
The lands of the Daur (Tagour) and Solon people shown east and west of the Nonni River on an early 18th-century Jesuit map

The Ewenki (also spelled Evenki) people are spread throughout the taiga forests of much of northeastern Asia, including most of Eastern Siberia and parts of Northeastern China. According to Juha Janhunen's classification, the Ewenki people found in China can be classified into three subethnic groups:[1]

  • The Solon (索さく伦鄂温ぬる克かつ; Suǒlún Èwēnkè, "Solon Ewenki")
  • The Oroqen
  • The "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus" - a small group which are known to the Chinese as the "Yakut" (雅まさ库特鄂温克かつ; Yǎkùtè Èwēnkè, "Yakut Ewenki").[1] They are the only group in China engaged in reindeer herding.[1]

Another subethnic group in China's Inner Mongolia, the Khamnigan, are bilingual, speaking the Ewenki language along with a Mongolian dialect. Janhunen believes that their primary ethnic affiliation is Mongolian rather than Ewenki, and does not include them into his classification of China's Ewenki.[2]

The above classification is different from the PRC's official classification, according to which the Oroqen are considered a separate ethnic group, while the official Ewenki ethnic group of China includes not only the Solons and the "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus", but also the Khamnigan (or, officially, the "Tungus Ewenki", 通つう古こ斯鄂温ぬる克かつ; Tōnggǔsī Èwēnkè).[2]

As both the "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus" and the Khamnigans are quite small groups (perhaps around 200 persons in the former,[1] and under 2,000 in the latter,[3] as of the 1990s), the majority of the people classified as "Ewenki" in China are Solons. The Solon population was estimated as 7,200 in 1957, 18,000 in 1982, and 25,000 in 1990.[2]

According to Janhunen's analysis, the Oroqen are in fact much closer to the "Ewenki proper" (i.e., the Evenks of Siberia) than the Solon are. The Solon are characterized by their close association with the Daur people. The Solons reside in the same areas where Daur do, in particular, in Evenk Autonomous Banner of Inner Mongolia, and elsewhere throughout the prefecture-level city of Hulunbuir.[2] While the Solon language itself is a dialect of the Evenki language, most of the Solons are also bilingual in the Mongolic Daur language.[2]

History

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Aiman (cf. Mongolian aimag "tribe, league") was the word Manchus used for the north Tungusic tribes of the Ewenki and Orochen which the Manchus incorporated into the Manchu banner system. The Kiler Ewenki had allied with the Cossack Russians unlike other Ewenki such as the Solon Ewenki under Qing rule. The Cossacks had hunted Aiman women as concubines and had children with them at Yaksa. The mixed children numbered 13 girls and 3 boys out of a total of 19 girls and 20 boys. There were 16 women and 155 men. In 1685 the Qing captured the mixed Cossack-Aiman children as well as the Cossacks, their Kiler Ewenki allies and some Orochen and incorporated them into the Ewenki and Oroqen banners.[4][5]

The Albazinians were told to marry Solon Evenki widows by the Board of Rites.[6]

The Solons were ordered by the Qianlong emperor to stop using firearms and instead practice traditional archery issuing an edict for silver taels to be issued for guns to be turned over to the government.[7]

During 1900-1931 many Han Chinese merchants came to Heilongjiang where Solon lived. Solon women were raped by Han merchants and Solon men were enslaved by the Han Chinese merchant creditors after Solons went into debt to them while trading furs on credit for guns, liquor and tobacco from the Han Chinese merchants from Zhili and Shanxi.[8][9]

In Xinjiang

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In 1763, a number of Solon bannermen, along with their Daur and Xibe comrades-in-arms were resettled from Manchuria (Northeastern China) to the frontier regions of the recently conquered Xinjiang (see Dzungar–Qing Wars). These Solon became also known as the "Ongkor Solon".[2][10] The presence of the Solons in the region is attested in numerous Russian accounts, in particular from the time of the Muslim minorities' war and its aftermath.

Unlike Xinjiang's Xibe, who preserve their ethnic identity into the 21st century, the less numerous Solon settlers gradually assimilated to the Dagur and Xibe. While over 100 Solons still lived in Xinjiang in 1905–1908, less than 20 people identified as Solon in the region in 1991. In 1990, only one Solon speaker remained in Xinjiang; he was 79 years old.[2][10]

Penal servitude to Solon

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The Qing dynasty often sent women and children of rebels as slaves to Solon (Evenks, Daur people, Oroqen people) garrisons in Ningguta in the Amur river drainage region of Heilongjiang and the Solin garrison in Ili (or Yili) in Dzungaria, Xinjiang. Muslim Uyghur women and children of rebels from a revolt in Uq Turpan were sent to Ili as slaves in 1765 after all the Uyghur male rebels were killed.[11] A shrine in Uq turpan originally claimed to be of daughters of the prophet Sulayman during the Qing later in the 20th century was attributed to 7 Uyghur girls from 1765.[12] Uyghur women and children were also given to Solon after a revolt in Kashgar in 1826. Uyghurs had a tale of a Uyghur woman named Nuzugum who was taken as a slave by an "infidel" Solon soldier in Ili from 1826 in an account recorded in 1882 by Bilal Nazim.[13] Muslim Salar women and children were sent to Yili and Manchuria as slaves after a war in 1781.[14] Eunuchs and slaves who committed infractions like theft and murder, who escaped multiple times or who were deemed to be uncontrollable were also sent to Ningguta as slaves of the Solon. Male slaves who committed robbery and murder or escaped multiple times were considered to difficult to control and were assigned to Oroqen.[15] A eunuch stole the clothes of Lady Niohuru (Concubine Cheng (Qianlong)) in 1759 and was sent to Ningguta as punishment.[16]

When the Qing forces under Zuo Zongtang put down the Dungan Revolt, the sons of Muslim Hui and Salar rebel leaders like Ma Benyuan (马本源げん) and Ma Guiyuan (马桂源げん) in Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai were castrated by the Qing Imperial Household Department once they became 11 years old and were sent to work as eunuch slaves for Qing garrisons in Xinjiang and the wives of the rebel leaders were also enslaved.[17][18][19][20] Among the Muslim boys were Ma Sanhe (马三和さんわ), Ma Qishizi (马七なな十じゅう子し), Ma Shaqiang (马沙枪), Ma Suo (马锁), Ma Youzong (马由宗むね), Ma Feifei (马飞飞), Ma Wushijiu (马五十じゅう九きゅう), Ma Wushiliu (马五十じゅう六ろく).[21][22] Ma Jincheng, a son of the Hui Naqshbandi leader Ma Hualong was also castrated after being held in jail in Xi'an until he was 11 years old.[23][24] The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 9 sons of Ma Guiyuan since they already reached age 12 and were enslave as eunuchs to Qing soldiers in Xinjiang. Ma Zhenyuan (马侦源げん), Ma Benyuan (马本源げん) and Ma Guiyuan's (马桂源げん) wives were all enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons after the husbands were executed.[25][26] Ma Yulong (马玉龙) was the father of the boys Ma Sanhe (马三和さんわ) and Ma Jibang (继邦). Ma Dingbang (马定邦くに) was the father of Ma Qishi (马七なな十じゅう), Ma Shaba (马沙把わ), Ma Suo (马锁) and Ma Youzong (;马由宗むね). Ma Chenglong (马成龙) was the father of Ma Feifei (马飞). Their sons were all sentenced to castration.[27][28][29][30][31][32] The Muslim rebels themselves were subjected to execution by lingchi (slow slicing) while their sons were castrated and their female relatives enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons.[33] The children of the Muslim rebels who were under ten included 6 year old Ga Liu (尕六), 8 year old Ga Quan (尕全) and Ma Xier (马希儿) who were imprisoned until they reached 11 and then castrated by the Imperial Household Department.[34]

Yaqub Beg and his son Ishana's corpses were "burned to cinders" in full public view. This angered the population in Kashgar, but Qing troops quashed a rebellious plot by Hakim Khan.[35] Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included his four sons, four grandchildren (two grandsons and two granddaughters), and four wives. They either died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu or were killed by the Qing government. His sons Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson Aisan Ahung were the only survivors alive in 1879. They were all underage children at that time. They were put on trial and sentenced to an agonizing death if they were found to be complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition". If they were innocent, they were to be sentenced to castration and servitude as eunuch slaves to the Qing troops on the Amur frontier in Heilongjiang. Afterwards, when they reached the age of 11 years, they would be handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated.[36][37][38] In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out, Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace.[39] Yaqub Beg's sons and grandsons who were captured were under 10 years old Aisin Ahongju (爱散阿おもね洪ひろし俱), Kadihuli (卡底胡えびす里さと) and 10 year old Imahuli (依よ玛胡里さと).[40]

Shamanism

[edit]

There are few sources on the shamanism of the Ewenki peoples below the Amur/Helongkiang river in Northern China. There is a brief report of fieldwork conducted by Richard Noll and Kun Shi in 1994 of the life of the shamaness Dula'r (Ewenki name), also known as Ao Yun Hua (her Han Chinese name).[41] She was born in 1920 and was living in the village of Yiming Gatsa in the Ewenki Banner (county) of the Hulunbuir Prefecture, in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. While not a particularly good informant, she described her initiatory illness, her multiyear apprenticeship with a Mongol shaman before being allowed to heal at the age of 25 or 26, and the torments she experienced during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s when most of her shamanic paraphernalia was destroyed. Mongol and Buddhist Lamaist influences on her indigenous practice of shamansim was evident. She hid her prize possession—an Abagaldi (bear spirit) shaman mask, which has also been documented among the Mongol and Daur peoples in the region. The field report and color photographs of this shaman are available online.[42]

Language

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Main article: Evenki language

According to Janhunen's research, the numerous dialects of the Ewenki language can be divided into two major groups: those of the Solons (which he labels "Solon Ewenki") and those of the Ewenki of Siberia (as well as the Oroqen and the "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus" of China), which he calls "Siberian Evenki". The Ewenki dialects of the bilingual Khamnigan show features characteristic of both "Manchurian" and "Siberian" groups, as well as peculiar Khamnigan innovations.[2]

The Solon being closely associated with the Daur, many (around half of them, according to Janhunen's field research in the 1990s) Solon people are bilingual in the Daur language.[43] During the Qing Empire, many Solon (as well as members of many other native groups of Manchuria) were able to speak Manchu,[44] while in modern China Mandarin Chinese is universally taught.

See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d Janhunen 1996, pp. 67–68
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Janhunen 1996, pp. 70–72
  3. ^ Janhunen 1996, p. 52
  4. ^ Bello, David A. (2016) "Across Forest, Steppe, and Mountain: Environment, Identity, and Empire in Qing China's Borderlands" ed. illustrated. Cambridge University Press. 1107068843. p. 95.
  5. ^ Bello, David. “Rival Empires on the Hunt for Sable and People in Seventeenth-Century Manchuria,” Empire and Environment in the Making of Manchuria, ed. Norman Smith (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2017), p. 72.
  6. ^ Widmer, Eric D. (1976). East Asian research center (Cambridge, Mass.) (ed.). The Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Peking During the Eighteenth Century (illustrated ed.). Harvard Uni Asia Center. p. 188. ISBN 0674781295. ISSN 0073-0483.
  7. ^ "Gun Control, Qing Style". 9 March 2013.
  8. ^ Shan, Fuliang Patrick (March 2003). The Development of the North Manchuria Frontier, 1900-1931 (PDF) (PhD) McMaster University. p. 149.
  9. ^ Shan, Patrick Fuliang, (2016) "Taming China's Wilderness: Immigration, Settlement and the Shaping of the Heilongjiang Frontier, 1900-1931", Routledge, 1317046838. p. 103
  10. ^ a b Juha Janhunen, "Ongkor Solon" in UNESCO RED BOOK ON ENDANGERED LANGUAGES: NORTHEAST ASIA, based on: BAI Lan & Juha JANHUNEN: "On the present state of the Ongkor Solon", Journal de la Société Fino-Ougrienne, 84, Helsinki 1992
  11. ^ Millward, James. A. "Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang" ed. illustrated, Columbia University Press, 2007 0231139241 p. 109
  12. ^ "Chapter 3: Purging Xinjiang's Past".
  13. ^ ABRAMSON, KARA. “Gender, Uyghur Identity, and the Story of Nuzugum.” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 71, no. 4, 2012, pp. 1069–91. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23357434.
  14. ^ Dwyer, Arienne M. "Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1" ed. illustrated, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2008, 3447040912 p.21
  15. ^ Kim, Loretta E. "Ethnic Chrysalis: China's Orochen People and the Legacy of Qing Borderland Administration" BRILL. 2020. 1684171032 pp. 151-2
  16. ^ 《添碳檔》.
  17. ^ （清きよし）左ひだり, 宗そう棠 (2009). 左ひだり宗はじめ棠全集しゅう 五ご. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7999010807. (清きよし)左ひだり宗はじめ棠. 兹据布ぬの政せい使し崇たかし保たもて、按察使し杨重雅みやび、署しょ兰州道どう捧ささげ武たけし会かい详:司つかさ道みち等とう遵即督とく同どう兰州府ふ铁珊提ひさげ讯该逆ぎゃく马桂源げん之の妻つま马马氏し,马本源げん之の妻つま马王氏し, ... 均ひとし解かい交内务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处,给官兵へい为奴;如年在ざい十じゅう岁以下か者しゃ,牢固ろうこ监禁,俟年届とどけ十じゅう一いち岁时,再さい行くだり解かい交内务府照あきら例れい办理; ...
  18. ^ （清きよし）左ひだり, 宗そう棠 (2009). 左ひだり宗はじめ棠全集しゅう 七なな. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7999010821. (清きよし)左ひだり宗はじめ棠. 逼勉从,情じょう尚ひさし可か原はら。当とう饬传各かく该家属ぞく具ぐ领择配はい完かん聚。引上胡えびす里さと之子ゆきこ年ねん三さん岁,染しみ患惊疯病症しょう,医い治ち无效,于上年ねん三さん月がつ二に十じゅう四よん日にち在ざい监身死し。 ... 内うち务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴;如年在ざい十じゅう岁以下か者しゃ,牢固ろうこ监禁,俟年届とどけ十じゅう一いち岁时,再さい行くだり解かい交内务府照あきら例れい办理,等とう语。
  19. ^ （清きよし）左ひだり, 宗そう棠 (2009). 左ひだり宗はじめ棠全集しゅう 一いち二に. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7999010883. (清きよし)左ひだり宗はじめ棠. 上うえ年ねん胪举四君子しくんし之の疏,得とく邀俞允。史し馆立传,应行知ち亲属将はた仕つかまつ履くつ存そん殁年月がつ一切いっさい详明开示,以凭咨送。现惟王子おうじ寿ことぶき世よ兄けい由よし本籍ほんせき呈てい明あかり申送もうしおく来らい营,此外,寂さび无一いち字じ见复, ... 迨至十じゅう一いち岁,照あきら例れい解かい交内务府阉割,将はた焉置此?如虑加か刑けい无定例ていれい可か援,则绝乳ちち听其自じ毙,乃是正ぜせい办, ...
  20. ^ 左ひだり, 宗そう棠 (1979). 左文さぶん襄じょう公こう(宗そう棠)全集ぜんしゅう (reprint ed.). 文海ぶんかい出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. p. 71. 左ひだり宗はじめ棠, 楊書霖, 張ちょう亮あきら基もと, 駱秉章あきら. 御ご! 1 ?所しょ冇錄抚南將しょう? ?軍ぐん一一品顶带莂噢斓楚布政使近錢^餌えさ,將はた^ 1 :难^ ^间餘^玖抆階かい州しゅう I ! ^ ! ... 谷たに询有 1 #未み除じょ钓總兵へい觫家 81 ^ ^馬うま步あゆみ分ぶん途と拽脚 21 月がつ十じゅう三日錄家一知戒胜涵任家莊山顶有赋筑 81 逑改講こう邾步圃 ...
  21. ^ 左ひだり, 宗そう棠 (1987). 左ひだり宗はじめ棠全集しゅう: 奏そう稿こう, Volume 5. Vol. 5 of 左ひだり宗むね棠全集しゅう. 岳たけ麓ふもと书社. p. 42. ISBN 7805200726. 奏そう稿こう 左ひだり宗むね棠. 之これ犯おかせ,其子讯明实系不知ふち谋逆情事じょうじ者しゃ,无论已やめ未成みせい丁ひのと,均ひとし解かい交内务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴例れい,解かい交内务府照あきら例れい办理。马五十じゅう六ろく、马五十じゅう九きゅう、马飞飞、马由宗むね、马锁、马沙枪、马七なな十じゅう子し、马三和さんわ,俱年在ざい十じゅう岁以下か,应照例れい牢固ろうこ监禁,侯ほう年ねん十じゅう一いち岁时, ...
  22. ^ 左ひだり, 宗そう棠 (1987). 左ひだり宗はじめ棠全集しゅう: 奏そう稿こう, Volume 5. Vol. 5 of 左ひだり宗むね棠全集しゅう, 左ひだり宗はじめ棠 左ひだり宗むね棠全集しゅう: 奏そう稿こう, 左ひだり宗はじめ棠. 岳たけ麓ふもと书社. p. 42. ISBN 7805200726. 之これ犯おかせ,其子讯明实系不知ふち谋逆情事じょうじ者しゃ,无论已やめ未成みせい丁ひのと,均ひとし解かい交内务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴例れい,解かい交内务府照あきら例れい办理。马五十じゅう六ろく、马五十じゅう九きゅう、马飞飞、马由宗むね、马锁、马沙枪、马七なな十じゅう子し、马三和さんわ,俱年在ざい十じゅう岁以下か,应照例れい牢固ろうこ监禁,侯ほう年ねん十じゅう一いち岁时,再さい行くだり解かい交内务府照あきら例れい ...
  23. ^ 云うん南みなみ省しょう少数しょうすう民族みんぞく古こ籍せき整理せいり出版しゅっぱん规划办公室しつ (2004). 云うん南みなみ回かい族ぞく人物じんぶつ碑ひ传精选, Volume 1. Compiled by 王子おうじ华, 姚继德とく. 云うん南みなみ民族みんぞく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. p. 417. ISBN 7536729790. 光ひかり绪十じゅう五ご年ねん( 1889 年ねん)十二月じゅうにがつ二に十じゅう九きゅう日にち归真,时年 25 岁。马进城じょう押解北京ぺきん施行しこう阉割酷刑こっけい后きさき,不ふ久ひさ几年他た的てき弟おとうと弟おとうと马进西又にしまた从西安やす监狱押上おしあげ北京ぺきん大道だいどう施行しこう阉割。马元章あきら召集しょうしゅう老ろう何なん爷、杨云 鹤等吩咐说: "十じゅう三さん太ふとし爷三さん百ひゃく余あまり 《左ひだり宗むね棠全集しゅう》册さつ七なな,同どう治ち十じゅう年ねん十二月じゅうにがつ十じゅう二に日にち。
  24. ^ 云うん南みなみ省しょう少数しょうすう民族みんぞく古こ籍せき整理せいり出版しゅっぱん规划办公室しつ (2004). 云うん南みなみ回かい族ぞく人物じんぶつ碑ひ传精选, Volume 1. Compiled by 王子おうじ华, 姚继德とく. 云うん南みなみ民族みんぞく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. p. 417. ISBN 7536729790. ... 均ひとし交内务府陶すえ割わり,发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴例れい,交内务府办理。马五十じゅう六ろく、马五十じゅう九きゅう、马飞飞、马由宗むね、马锁、马沙把わ、马七なな十じゅう子し、马三和さんわ,俱年在ざい十じゅう岁以下か,应照例れい牢固ろうこ监禁,侯ほう年ねん十じゅう一岁时再解交內务府照例办理。"光こう绪初年ねん,监禁在ざい西安しーあん的てき马化龙的孙子马进城じょう(即そく马五 ...
  25. ^ 青海あおみ省しょう志こころざし: 审判志こころざし. Vol. 55 of 青海せいかい省しょう志こころざし, 青海あおみ省しょう地方ちほう志こころざし编纂委い员会. Contributor 青海せいかい省しょう地方ちほう志こころざし编纂委い员会. 青海あおみ人民じんみん出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. 1993. p. 129. 据すえ左ひだり宗むね棠关于《叛逆はんぎゃく马本源げん等とう讯明正法しょうぼう》的てき奏そう报称: "马桂源げん兄弟きょうだい眷属けんぞく解かい省しょう,当とう即そく发交司し道どう监禁会かい讯. ... 马桂源げん之の妻つま马马氏し,马本源げん之の妻つま马王氏し,马侦源げん之の妻つま马马氏し及犯妾わらわ马马氏し、发各省しょう驻防给官员兵丁ひのと为奴,马桂源げん子こ九きゅう个(年とし 12 岁)即行そっこう解かい交内务府阉割发往新しん疆等处给 ...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  26. ^ 张, 振ふ佩 (1993). 左ひだり宗はじめ棠传. 海南かいなん国こく际新闻出版しゅっぱん中心ちゅうしん. p. 41. ISBN 780609072X. 而穷追つい汪ひろし海洋かいよう于南海なんかい,消しょう灭洪、扬残余あまり,结束太平たいへい军事,更さら是ぜ左ひだり氏し一いち人にん之の功こう。西にし抢的剿平,既すんで是ぜ左ひだり、李り二に氏し之の功いさお;闽、越えつ的てき债事,则是张佩一いち人にん之の责。治ち河かわ导准,已やめ开现在ざい水利すいり的てき嗜矢;首くび创船政せい,更さら为建立こんりゅう海うみ军的始はじめ基もと。左ひだり宗むね棠 40 岁前,还是一个小城市里的穷教师。40 岁后的てき 30 ...
  27. ^ 回かい族ぞく人物じんぶつ志こころざし, Volume 1. Compiled by 白寿はくじゅ彝つね Contributors 杨怀中ちゅう, 白はく崇たかし人じん. 宁夏人民じんみん出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. 2000. pp. 1578, 1579. ISBN 7227020061. Page 1578 这时甘あま肃回民みん起おこり义失败,金きむ积堡于同治ち九年底被左宗棠攻陷,翌年よくねん正月しょうがつ十じゅう三さん日にち马化龙父子ふし、亲属及起义骨干ひ一いち千せん八はち百ひゃく余人よにん全ぜん被ひ杀害,劫こう后きさき子こ遗的老弱ろうじゃく贬遣固かた原山はらやま区く;十じゅう一いち年初ねんしょ,太子たいし寺てら战役获胜后きさき ... 犯はん的てき男おとこ孩到十じゅう二岁要承受阉割酷刑,他た们所犯はん的てき是ぜ他た们祖辈们的てき死罪しざい。左ひだり宗むね ... Page 1579 飞系马成龙之子こ;马由宗むね、马锁、马沙把わ、马七なな十子系马定邦之子;马继邦くに、马三和系马玉龙之子,均ひとし未成みせい丁ひのと,讯明不知ふち谋逆情事じょうじ, ... 马进城じょう押解北京ぺきん施行しこう阉割酷刑こっけい后きさき,不ふ久ひさ几年他た的てき弟おとうと 弟おとうと马进西又にしまた从西安やす监狱押上おしあげ北京ぺきん大道だいどう 0 《左ひだり宗むね棠全集しゅう》册さつ七なな,同どう治ち十じゅう年ねん十二月じゅうにがつ十じゅう二に日にち。{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  28. ^ 回かい族ぞく人物じんぶつ志こころざし, Volume 1. Compiled by 白寿はくじゅ彝つね Contributors 杨怀中ちゅう, 白はく崇たかし人じん. 宁夏人民じんみん出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. 2000. pp. 1578, 1579. ISBN 7227020061. 马五十じゅう六ろく、马五十じゅう九きゅう、马飞飞、马由宗むね、马锁、马沙把わ、马七なな十じゅう子し、马三和さんわ,俱年在ざい十じゅう岁以下か,应照例れい牢固ろうこ监禁,侯ほう年ねん十じゅう一岁时再解交内务府照例办理。"光こう绪初年ねん,监禁在ざい西安しーあん的てき马化龙的孙子马进城じょう(即そく马五十じゅう六ろく)将はた押赴北京ぺきん内ない务府施行しこう阉割。马元章あきら派は杨云鹤等人じん潜行せんこう囚しゅう车 ...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  29. ^ 宁夏审判志こころざし编纂委い员会 (1998). 宁夏审判志こころざし. 宁夏人民じんみん出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. pp. 94, 95. Page 94 左ひだり宗むね棠曾向こう朝廷ちょうてい上奏じょうそう: '抚局'名めい为官抚回,实则回かい制せい官かん",为此,清きよし政府せいふ决定实行先さき"抚"后きさき"剿"的てき政策せいさく,于 1866 年ねん 9 月がつ任命にんめい左ひだり宗むね棠为 ... 交内务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴例れい",解かい交内务府照あきら例れい办理,其中马五十じゅう六ろく、马五十じゅう九きゅう、马飞飞、马由宗むね、马锁、马沙把わ、马 ... Page 95 1872 年ねん 6 月がつ经左宗むね棠奏准じゅん清きよし政府せいふ,将はた马万选之子老哇子(一いち岁)、孙二に虎とら子こ(一いち岁)、三さん虎とら子こ(一いち岁),纳万まん元げん之子ゆきこ古こ哇子(六ろく岁)、勒芝子こ〈一いち岁)依よ照あきら"叛逆はんぎゃく子こ孙不知ふち谋逆情事じょうじ律りつ",决定监禁至いたり年ねん满十じゅう一岁时解交内务府办理〈阉割后きさき发往边疆给官兵へい为奴)。
  30. ^ 宁夏审判志こころざし编纂委い员会 (1998). 宁夏审判志こころざし. 宁夏人民じんみん出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. pp. 94, 95. ... 无论已やめ未成みせい丁ちょう均ひとし交内务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴例れい",解かい交内务府照あきら例れい办理,其中马五十じゅう六ろく、马五十じゅう九きゅう、马飞飞、马由宗むね、马锁、马沙把わ、马七なな十じゅう子し、马三和等因年龄在十岁以下,予よ以牢固ろうこ监禁,待まち年ねん满十じゅう一岁时再行解交内务府照例办理。对马化か凤、马阿 ...
  31. ^ Gansu Sheng zhi, Volume 7. ̇̈̇̄, ̇̈̇̄ʻ̆£̄ø̄ơ̇ð̇ʹ̄̄ỡơ̇ð̇. Contributor ʻ̆£̄ø̄ơ̇ð̇ʹ̄̄ỡơ̇ð̇. ̇̈ð̃ðʻ̆̄ð ̇ Þ̇. 1989. p. 39. 公おおやけ元もと 1863 年ねん(同どう治ち二に年ねん)四よん月がつ,甘あま肃平凉、肃州等地とうち回かい民みん群ぐん起おこり响应陕西渭南回かい民みん起おこり义,在ざい金かね积堡大だい阿おもね马化隆りゅう等ひとし人じん领导下か,与清ともきよ军抗争そう九きゅう年ねん之の久ひさ。 ... 宗そう、马锁、马沙把わ、马七なな十じゅう子し、马玉隆りゅう之子ゆきこ马继邦くに、马三和さんわ等とう未成年みせいねん男おとこ丁ひのと,解かい交内务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴。{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  32. ^ 甘あま肃省志こころざし: 审判志こころざし. 第だい七なな卷かん, Volume 7. Compiled by 甘あま肃省地方ちほう史し志こころざし编纂委い员会, 甘あま肃省审判志こころざし编纂委い员会. 甘あま肃文化ぶんか出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. 1995. p. 39. ISBN 7806081720. 公おおやけ元もと 1863 年ねん(同どう治ち二に年ねん)四よん月がつ,甘あま肃平凉、肃州等地とうち回かい民みん群ぐん起おこり响应陕西渭南回かい民みん起おこり义,在ざい金かね积堡大だい阿おもね马化隆りゅう等ひとし人じん领导下か, ... 马定邦之くにゆき子こ马由宗むね、马锁、马沙把わ、马七なな十じゅう子し、马玉隆りゅう之子ゆきこ马继邦くに、马三和さんわ等とう未成年みせいねん男おとこ丁ひのと,解かい交内务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴。{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  33. ^ （清きよし）左ひだり, 宗そう棠 (2009). 左ひだり宗はじめ棠全集しゅう 五ご. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7999010807. 查例载反逆ぎゃく案内あんない,律りつ应问拟凌迟之犯はん,其子讯明实系不知ふち逆ぎゃく谋情事じょうじ者しゃ,无论已やめ未成みせい丁ひのと,均ひとし解かい交内务府阉割,发往新しん疆等处,给官兵へい为奴;如年在ざい十じゅう岁以下か者しゃ,牢固ろうこ监禁,俟年届とどけ十じゅう一いち岁时,再さい行くだり解かい交内务府照あきら例れい办理;缘坐妇女发各省しょう驻防,给官员兵丁ひのと为奴。各かく等とう语。此案马格系けい马桂源げん ...
  34. ^ 青海あおみ省しょう志こころざし: 审判志こころざし. Vol. 55 of 青海せいかい省しょう志こころざし, 青海あおみ省しょう地方ちほう志こころざし编纂委い员会. Contributor 青海せいかい省しょう地方ちほう志こころざし编纂委い员会. 青海あおみ人民じんみん出版しゅっぱん社しゃ. 1993. p. 129. 马桂源げん之の妻つま马马氏し,马本源げん之の妻つま马王氏し,马侦源げん之の妻つま马马氏し及犯妾わらわ马马氏し、发各省しょう驻防给官员兵丁ひのと为奴,马桂源げん子こ九きゅう个(年とし 12 岁)即行そっこう解かい交内务府阉割发往新しん疆等处给官かん兵へい为奴,马希儿 00 岁)、尕全( 8 岁)、尕六( 6 岁)均ひとし在ざい 10 岁以下か,暂行监禁,俟 11 岁再行ぎょう解かい交内务 ...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  35. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events, Volume 4. TD. Appleton and company. 1880. p. 145. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
  36. ^ Translations of the Peking Gazette. 1880. p. 83. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
  37. ^ The American annual cyclopedia and register of important events of the year ..., Volume 4. D. Appleton and Company. 1888. p. 145. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
  38. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 19. Appleton. 1886. p. 145. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
  39. ^ Peter Tompkins (1963). The eunuch and the virgin: a study of curious customs. C. N. Potter. p. 32. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  40. ^ （清きよし）左ひだり, 宗そう棠 (2009). 左ひだり宗はじめ棠全集しゅう 七なな. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7999010821. 引上胡えびす里さと之子ゆきこ年ねん三さん岁,染しみ患惊疯病症しょう,医い治ち无效,于上年ねん三さん月がつ二に十じゅう四よん日にち在ざい监身死し。其引上じょう胡えびす里さと一いち名めい,桀骜异常,业经刘锦棠亲讯属实, ... 依よ玛胡里さと年ねん甫はじめ十じゅう岁,卡底胡えびす里さと、爱散阿おもね洪ひろし俱(在ざい年とし)〔年とし在ざい〕十じゅう岁以下か,均ひとし应照例れい牢固ろうこ监禁,俟十じゅう一岁时再行解交内务府,照あきら例れい办理,等とう情じょう。
  41. ^ Richard Noll and Kun Shi, A Solon Ewenki shaman and her Abagaldi shaman mask, Shaman,2007, 15 (1-2):167-174.
  42. ^ Noll & Shi 2007
  43. ^ Janhunen 1996b, p. 828
  44. ^ Janhunen 1996, p. 83

References

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