Shogun (English: /ˈʃoʊɡʌn/ SHOH-gun;[1] Japanese:
The office of shogun was in practice hereditary, although over the course of the history of Japan several different clans held the position. The title was originally held by military commanders during the Heian period in the eighth and ninth centuries. When Minamoto no Yoritomo gained political ascendency over Japan in 1185, the title was revived to regularize his position, making him the first shogun in the usually understood sense.
It is often said that one must be of the Minamoto lineage to become a shogun, but this is not true. While it is true that the Minamoto lineage was respected as a lineage suitable for the position of shogun, the fourth and fifth shoguns of the Kamakura shogunate were from the Fujiwara lineage (although their mothers were from the Minamoto lineage), and the sixth through ninth shoguns were from the imperial lineage. Oda Nobunaga, who claimed to be a descendant of the Taira clan, was approached for the position of shogun a month before his death.[8][9][10]
The shogun's officials were collectively referred to as the bakufu (
Etymology
editThe term shogun (
征 (sei, せい) means "conquer" or "subjugate", and夷 (i, い) means "barbarian" or "savage";大 (dai, だい) means "great";将 (shō, しょう) means "commander",[13] and軍 (gun, ぐん) means "army".[14]
Thus, a literal translation of sei-i taishōgun would be 'Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians'.[2]
The term originally referred to the general who commanded the army sent to fight the tribes of northern Japan, but after the twelfth century, the term was used to designate the leader of the samurai.[15] The term is often translated generalissimo and is also used for such military leaders of foreign nations by the Japanese.
Though shogun (
Bakufu
editThe shogunate's administration was known as the bakufu (
Titles
editHistorically, similar terms to sei-i taishōgun were used with varying degrees of responsibility, although none of them had equal or more importance than sei-i taishōgun.[citation needed] Some of them were:
- Seitō Taishōgun (
征 東大 将軍 , lit. "Commander-in-chief for the pacification of the East")[17] - Seisei Taishōgun (
征 西 大将軍 , lit. "Commander-in-chief for the pacification of the West")[18] - Chinjufu Shōgun (
鎮守 府 将軍 , lit. "Commander-in-chief of the central peacekeeping headquarters")[19] - Seiteki Taishōgun (
征 狄大将軍 , lit. "Commander-in-chief Subjugator of the barbarians")[citation needed] - Mochisetsu Taishōgun (
持 節 大将軍 , lit. "Commander-in-chief of the Temporary Office")[citation needed] - Mutsu Chintōshōgun (
陸奥 鎮東将軍 , lit. "Great General of Subduing Mutsu")[citation needed]
History
editShoguns in the history of Japan | |||
---|---|---|---|
S# | Name | Birth/Death | Government |
First shoguns[20] | |||
Tajihi no Agatamori | 668–737[21] | 720[22] | |
Ōtomo no Yakamochi | 718?–785[23] | 784–785[24] Ki no Kosami in the year 789[25] | |
Ki no Kosami | 733–797 | 789[25] | |
Ōtomo no Otomaro | 731–809[26] | 794[27] | |
Sakanoue no Tamuramaro | 758–811[28] | 797–811?[29] | |
Fun'ya no Watamaro | 765–823[30] | 813[29] | |
Fujiwara no Tadabumi | 873–947[31] | 940[29] | |
Minamoto no Yoshinaka | 1154–1184[32] | 1184[29] | |
Kamakura Shogunate[33] | |||
1 | Minamoto no Yoritomo | 1147–1199 | 1192–1199 |
2 | Minamoto no Yoriie | 1182–1204 | 1202–1203 |
3 | Minamoto no Sanetomo | 1192–1219 | 1203–1219 |
4 | Kujō Yoritsune | 1218–1256 | 1226–1244 |
5 | Kujō Yoritsugu | 1239–1256 | 1244–1252 |
6 | Prince Munetaka | 1242–1274 | 1252–1266 |
7 | Prince Koreyasu | 1264–1326 | 1266–1289 |
8 | Prince Hisaaki | 1276–1328 | 1289–1308 |
9 | Prince Morikuni | 1301–1333 | 1308–1333 |
Kenmu Restoration | |||
Prince Moriyoshi | 1308–1335[34] He was named shogun by his father Emperor Go-Daigo in 1333[35] | 1333–1335[35] | |
Prince Nariyoshi | 1326–1344?[36] | 1334–1338[36] | |
Ashikaga Shogunate[33] | |||
1 | Ashikaga Takauji | 1305–1358 | 1338–1358 |
2 | Ashikaga Yoshiakira | 1330–1367 | 1358–1367 |
3 | Ashikaga Yoshimitsu | 1358–1408 | 1368–1394 |
4 | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | 1386–1428 | 1394–1423 |
5 | Ashikaga Yoshikazu | 1407–1425 | 1423–1425 |
6 | Ashikaga Yoshinori | 1394–1441 | 1429–1441 |
7 | Ashikaga Yoshikatsu | 1434–1443 | 1442–1443 |
8 | Ashikaga Yoshimasa | 1436–1490 | 1449–1473 |
9 | Ashikaga Yoshihisa | 1465–1489 | 1473–1489 |
10 | Ashikaga Yoshitane | 1466–1523 | 1490–1493 |
11 | Ashikaga Yoshizumi | 1480–1511 | 1494–1508 |
10 | Ashikaga Yoshitane | 1466–1523 | 1508–1521 |
12 | Ashikaga Yoshiharu | 1511–1550 | 1521–1546 |
13 | Ashikaga Yoshiteru | 1536–1565 | 1546–1565 |
14 | Ashikaga Yoshihide | 1538–1568 | 1568 |
15 | Ashikaga Yoshiaki | 1537–1597 | 1568–1573 |
Tokugawa Shogunate[33] | |||
1 | Tokugawa Ieyasu | 1542–1616 | 1603–1605 |
2 | Tokugawa Hidetada | 1579–1632[37] | 1605–1623 |
3 | Tokugawa Iemitsu | 1604–1651 | 1623–1651 |
4 | Tokugawa Ietsuna | 1641–1680 | 1651–1680 |
5 | Tokugawa Tsunayoshi | 1646–1709 | 1680–1709 |
6 | Tokugawa Ienobu | 1662–1712[37] | 1709–1712 |
7 | Tokugawa Ietsugu | 1709–1716 | 1713–1716 |
8 | Tokugawa Yoshimune | 1684–1751 | 1716–1745 |
9 | Tokugawa Ieshige | 1711–1761 | 1745–1760 |
10 | Tokugawa Ieharu | 1737–1786 | 1760–1786 |
11 | Tokugawa Ienari | 1773–1841[37] | 1787–1837 |
12 | Tokugawa Ieyoshi | 1793–1853 | 1837–1853 |
13 | Tokugawa Iesada | 1824–1858 | 1853–1858 |
14 | Tokugawa Iemochi | 1846–1866 | 1858–1866 |
15 | Tokugawa Yoshinobu | 1837–1913 | 1867–1868[38] |
First shogun
editThere is no consensus among the various authors since some sources consider Tajihi no Agatamori the first, others say Ōtomo no Otomaro,[39] other sources assure that the first was Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, while others avoid the problem by just mentioning from the first Kamakura shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo. Originally, the title of sei-i taishōgun ("Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians")[2] was given to military commanders during the early Heian period for the duration of military campaigns against the Emishi, who resisted the governance of the Kyoto-based imperial court.
Heian period (794–1185)
editSakanoue no Tamuramaro
editSakanoue no Tamuramaro (758–811)[28] was a Japanese general who fought against the Emishi tribes of northern Japan (settled in the territory that today integrates the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa). Tamarumaro was the first general to bend these tribes, integrating their territory to that of the Yamato State. For his military feats he was named sei-i taishōgun and probably because he was the first to win the victory against the northern tribes he is generally recognized as the first shogun in history.[28][40][41] (Note: according to historical sources Ōtomo no Otomaro also had the title of sei-i taishōgun).
The regency political system and cloistered rule
editThe shoguns of this period had no real political power, and the imperial court was in charge of politics. From the mid-9th century to the mid-11th century, the Fujiwara clan controlled political power. They excluded other clans from the political center and monopolized the highest positions in the court, such as sesshō (
Later, in the mid-11th century, Emperor Go-Sanjo weakened the power of the sesshō and kampaku by presiding over politics himself, and when the next emperor, Shirakawa, abdicated and became a cloistered emperor and began a cloistered rule, the sesshō and kampaku lost their real political authority and became nominal, effectively ending the Fujiwara regime.[42][43][44]
The first attempt to establish a warrior class government
editTaira no Masakado, who rose to prominence in the early 10th century, was the first of the local warrior class to revolt against the imperial court.[45] He had served Fujiwara no Tadahira as a young man, but eventually won a power struggle within the Taira clan and became a powerful figure in the Kanto region. In 939, Fujiwara no Haruaki, a powerful figure in the Hitachi province, fled to Masakado. He was wanted for tyranny by Fujiwara no Korechika, an Kokushi (
The birth of the first warrior class government
editDuring the reigns of Emperor Shirakawa and Emperor Toba, the Taira clan became Kokushi (
However, when Taira no Kiyomori used his power to have the child of his daughter Taira no Tokuko and Emperor Takakura installed as Emperor Antoku, there was widespread opposition. Prince Mochihito, no longer able to assume the imperial throne, called upon the Minamoto clan to raise an army to defeat the Taira clan, and the Genpei War began. In the midst of the Genpei War, Minamoto no Yoshinaka expelled the Taira clan from Kyoto, and although initially welcomed by the hermit Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he became estranged and isolated due to the disorderly military discipline and lack of political power under his command. He staged a coup, overthrew the emperor's entourage, and became the first of the Minamoto clan to assume the office of Sei-i Taishōgun (shogun). In response, Minamoto no Yoritomo sent Minamoto no Noriyori and Minamoto no Yoshitsune to defeat Yoshinaka, who was killed within a year of becoming shogun. In 1185, the Taira clan was finally defeated in the Battle of Dan-no-ura, and the Minamoto clan came to power.[5][47]
Kamakura shogunate (1185–1333)
editThere are various theories as to the year in which the Kamakura period and Kamakura shogunate began. In the past, the most popular theory was that the year was 1192, when Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed sei-i taishōgun (
Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the central government and aristocracy and by 1192 established a feudal system based in Kamakura in which the private military, the samurai, gained some political powers while the Emperor and the aristocracy remained the de jure rulers.[49][50]
In 1192, Yoritomo was awarded the title of sei-i taishōgun by Emperor Go-Toba and the political system he developed with a succession of shoguns as the head became known as a shogunate. Hojo Masako's (Yoritomo's wife) family, the Hōjō, seized power from the Kamakura shoguns.[51]
In 1199, Yoritomo died suddenly at the age of 53, and the 18-year-old Minamoto no Yoriie took over as second shogun. To support the young Yoriie, the decisions of the shogunate were made by a 13-man council, including Hojo Tokimasa and his son Hojo Yoshitoki, but this was effectively dismantled shortly afterwards when one of the key members lost his political position and two others died of illness.[52][53]
Puppetization of the shogun by the shikken
editWhen Minamoto no Yoriie fell ill in 1203, a power struggle broke out between the Hojo clan and Hiki Yoshikazu, and Hojo Tokimasa destroyed the Hiki clan. Tokimasa then installed the 12-year-old Minamoto no Sanetomo as the third shogun, puppeting him while himself becoming the first shikken (
However, Hojo Tokimasa lost influence in 1204 when he killed Hatakeyama Shigetada, believing false information that his son-in-law Shigetada was about to rebel, and lost his position in 1205 when he tried to install his son-in-law Hiraga Tomomasa as the fourth shogun. Hojo Yoshitoki became the second shikken, and the shogunate was administered under the leadership of Hojo Masako.[52][53]
In 1219, the third shogun, Minamoto no Sanetomo, was assassinated for unknown reasons.[53]
In 1221, war broke out for the first time in Japan between the warrior class government and the imperial court, and in this battle, known as the Jōkyū War, the shogunate defeated former Emperor Go-Toba.[53] The shogunate exiled former Emperor Go-Toba to Oki Island for waging war against the shogunate. The shogunate learned its lesson and set up an administrative body in Kyoto called the Rokuhara Tandai (
After the sudden death of Hojo Yoshitoki in 1224, Hojo Yasutoki became the third shikken, and after the death of Hojo Masako in 1225, the administration of the shogunate returned to a council system.[53]
In 1226, Hojo Yasutoki installed Kujo Yoritsune, a member of the sekkan family, as the fourth shogun.[53]
In 1232, the Goseibai Shikimoku was enacted, the first codified law by a warrior class government in Japan.[53]
Puppetization of the shogun by the tokusō
editIn 1246, Hojo Tokiyori became the fifth shikken, and in 1252 he installed Prince Munetaka as the sixth shogun. The appointment of a member of the imperial family as shogun made the shogun more and more like a puppet. After retiring from the shikkens, he used his position as head of the Hojo clan's main family, tokusō (
During the reign of Hojo Tokimune, the eighth shikken and seventh tokusō, the shogunate twice defeated the Mongol invasion of Japan in 1274 and 1281. The shogunate defeated the Mongols with the help of samurai called gokenin (
In 1285, during the reign of Hojo Sadatoki, the ninth shikken and eighth tokusō, Adachi Yasumori and his clan, who had been the main vassals of the Kamakura shogunate, were destroyed by Taira no Yoritsuna, further strengthening the ruling system of the tokusō, which emphasized blood relations.[53] As tokusō's ruling system was strengthened, the power of the title of naikanrei (
In response to gokenin's dissatisfaction with the shogunate, Emperor Go-Daigo planned to raise an army against the shogunate, but his plan was leaked and he was exiled to Oki Island in 1331. In 1333, Emperor Go-Daigo escaped from Oki Island and again called on gokenin and samurai to raise an army against the shogunate. Kusunoki Masashige was the first to respond to the call, sparking a series of rebellions against the shogunate in various places. Ashikaga Takauji, who had been ordered by the shogunate to suppress the forces of Emperor Go-Daigo, turned to the emperor's side and attacked Rokuhara Tandai. Then, in 1333, Nitta Yoshisada invaded Kamakura and the Kamakura shogunate fell, and the Hōjō clan was destroyed.[54][56]
Kenmu Restoration (1333–1336)
editAround 1334–1336, Ashikaga Takauji helped Emperor Go-Daigo regain his throne in the Kenmu Restoration.[58]
Emperor Go-Daigo rejected cloistered rule and the shogunate and abolished the sesshō and kampaku in favour of an emperor-led government. He also began building a new palace and established four new administrative bodies. However, the nobles who had long been out of politics and the newly appointed samurai were unfamiliar with administrative practices, and the court was unable to handle the drastic increase in lawsuits. Emperor Go-Daigo gave high positions and rewards only to the nobles, and the warriors began to swear allegiance to Ashikaga Takauji, who was willing to give up his personal fortune to give them such rewards.[54]
During the Kenmu Restoration, after the fall of the Kamakura shogunate in 1333, another short-lived shogun arose. Prince Moriyoshi (Morinaga), son of Go-Daigo, was awarded the title of sei-i taishōgun. However, Prince Moriyoshi was later put under house arrest and, in 1335, killed by Ashikaga Tadayoshi.
Emperor Go-daigo did not like the growing fame of Ashikaga Takauji and ordered Nitta Yoshisada and others to defeat Ashikaga Takauji. In response, Takauji led a group of samurai against the new government and defeated the imperial court forces. This ended Emperor Go-Daigo's new regime in 1336 after only two years.[54][58]
Ashikaga (Muromachi) shogunate (1336/1338–1573)
editAfter the failure of the Kenmu Restoration, Emperor Go-Daigo fled to Enryaku-ji Temple on Mount Hiei with the Three Sacred Treasures (Imperial regalia,
Ashikaga Takauji tried to make peace with Emperor Go-Daigo, but the negotiations failed when Emperor Go-Daigo refused. Emperor Go-Daigo moved to Yoshino, and the country entered the Nanboku-cho period (1336-1392), in which two emperors existed at the same time in two different imperial courts, the Southern Court in Yoshino and the Northern Court in Kyoto.[54]
In 1338,[54][59][60] Ashikaga Takauji, like Minamoto no Yoritomo, a descendant of the Minamoto princes,[59] was awarded the title of sei-i taishōgun by Emperor Kōmyō and established the Ashikaga shogunate, which nominally lasted until 1573. The Ashikaga had their headquarters in the Muromachi district of Kyoto, and the time during which they ruled is also known as the Muromachi period.
Between 1346 and 1358, the Ashikaga shogunate gradually expanded the authority of the shugo (
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, the third shogun, negotiated peace with the Southern court, and in 1392 he reunited the two courts by absorbing the Southern court, ending the 58-year Nanboku-cho period. Yoshimitsu continued to hold power after passing the shogunate to his son Ashikaga Yoshimochi in 1395, becoming daijō-daijin (
In 1428, Ashikaga Yoshimochi, the fourth shogun, was ill and the question of his succession arose. Ashikaga Yoshikazu, the 5th shogun, died of illness at the age of 19, so the 6th shogun was chosen from among Yoshimochi's four brothers, and to ensure fairness, a lottery was held. The sixth shogun was Ashikaga Yoshinori. However, he was not educated to be a shogun, and his temperamental and despotic behavior caused resentment, and he was assassinated by Akamatsu Mitsusuke during the Kakitsu Rebellion. This led to instability in the Ashikaga shogunate system.[63][64]
Ōnin war and Sengoku period
editAshikaga Yoshimasa, the 8th shogun, tried to strengthen the power of the shogun, but his close associates did not follow his instructions, leading to political chaos and increasing social unrest. Since he had no sons, he tried to install his younger brother Ashikaga Yoshimi as the ninth shogun, but when his wife Hino Tomiko gave birth to Ashikaga Yoshihisa, a conflict arose among the shugo daimyo as to whether Yoshimi or Yoshihisa would be the next shogun. The Hatakeyama and Shiba clans were also divided into two opposing factions over succession within their own clans, and Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sōzen, who were father-in-law and son-in-law, were politically at odds with each other.[63][65]
In 1467, these conflicts finally led to the Ōnin War between the Eastern Army, led by Hosokawa Katsumoto and including Hatakeyama Masanaga, Shiba Yoshitoshi, and Ashikaga Yoshimi, and the Western Army, led by Yamana Sōzen and including Hatakeyama Yoshinari, Shiba Yoshikado, and Ashikaga Yoshihisa. In 1469, the war spread to the provinces, but in 1473, Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sōzen, the leaders of both armies, were dead, and in 1477, the war ended when the western lords, including Hatakeyama Yoshinari and Ōuchi Masahiro, withdrew their armies from Kyoto.[63][65]
The war devastated Kyoto, destroying many aristocratic and samurai residences, Shinto shrines, and Buddhist temples, and undermining the authority of the Ashikaga shoguns, greatly reducing their control over the various regions. Thus began the Sengoku period, a period of civil war in which the daimyo of various regions fought to expand their own power.[63][65] Daimyo who became more powerful as the shogunate's control weakened were called sengoku daimyo (
In 1492, Hosokawa Masamoto, the kanrei (
By the time of the 13th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiteru, the shogun already had few direct fiefs and direct military forces, and his sphere of influence was limited to a few lands around Kyoto, losing both economic and military power. As a result, Ashikaga Yoshiteru was often chased out of Kyoto by the sengoku daimyo Miyoshi Nagayoshi and his forces, and was finally killed in an attack by the forces of Miyoshi Yoshitsugu and Matsunaga Hisahide. Ashikaga Yoshiteru was known as a great swordsman and was a student of Tsukahara Bokuden, who was known as one of the strongest swordsmen.[69] According to Yagyū Munenori, a swordsmanship instructor in the Tokugawa Shogunate, Ashikaga Yoshiteru was one of the five best swordsmen of his time. According to several historical books, including Luís Fróis' Historia de Japam, he fought hard with naginata and tachi during a raid, defeating many of his enemies, but eventually ran out of strength and was killed.[70]
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603)
editThe Azuchi-Momoyama period refers to the period when Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi were in power.[71] They and Tokugawa Ieyasu are the three unifiers of Japan.[72] The name "Azuchi-Momoyama" comes from the fact that Nobunaga's castle, Azuchi Castle, was located in Azuchi, Shiga, and Fushimi Castle, where Hideyoshi lived after his retirement, was located in Momoyama.[71] Although the two leaders of the warrior class during this period were not given the title of sei-i taishōgun (
This era began when Oda Nobunaga expelled Ashikaga Yoshiaki from Kyoto and destroyed the Ashikaga shogunate. Adopting an innovative military strategy using tanegashima (
Nobunaga was given the title of udaijin (
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a general under Nobunaga, conquered Shikoku, Kyushu, Kantō, and the Tohoku after Nobunaga's death, completing Nobunaga's attempt to unify Japan.[79] Despite his peasant background, he rose through the ranks under Nobunaga, becoming ashigaru (
Before his death, Hideyoshi ordered that Japan be ruled by a council of the five most powerful sengoku daimyo, go-tairō (
In this politically unstable situation, Maeda Toshiie, one of the go-tairō, died of illness, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of the go-tairō' who had been second in power to Hideyoshi but had not participated in the Imjin War, rose to power, and Ieyasu came into conflict with Ishida Mitsunari, one of the go-bukyō and others. This conflict eventually led to the Battle of Sekigahara, in which the tō-gun (
Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868)
editRuled by 15 Tokugawa shoguns, the Edo period (1603–1868) saw dramatic economic and cultural development, fostered by a relatively peaceful society. Edo (now Tokyo) became the largest city in the world at the time, Genroku and Kasei cultures flourished, and chōnin (
The Edo period began in 1603 when Tokugawa Ieyasu was given the title of sei-i taishōgun (
In order to establish the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate, he exchanged the fiefdoms of various daimyo to increase or decrease their areas of control. The fudai daimyo (
In 1615, the Tokugawa shogunate enacted the Kinchu narabini kuge shohatto (
In 1617, a month before his death, Ieyasu was appointed daijō-daijin (
The fifth shogun, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, enforced an animal protection law called the Shōrui awaremi no rei (
In the early Edo period, Japan was the world's largest producer of gold and silver, but by the second half of the 17th century, these resources had been almost completely depleted, and most of the gold and silver produced was shipped out of the country, leaving the shogunate in financial difficulties. The eighth shogun, Tokugawa Yoshimune, implemented a series of reforms known as the Kyōhō Reforms. He reduced the shogunate's expenses while increasing revenue by requiring feudal lords to contribute rice to the shogunate in exchange for cutting the length of sankin-kōtai (
Tanuma Okitsugu, who held the position of rōjū (
Tokugawa Ienari, the 11th shogun, ruled the shogunate for 54 years, first as shogun from 1787 to 1837 and then as Ōgosho from 1837 to 1841. His 50-year reign was the longest of any shogun. Prior to his reign, Japan had suffered major earthquakes, several volcanic eruptions, droughts, floods and urban fires, and the finances of the shogunate were strained. Therefore, during Ienari's reign, from 1787 to 1793, Matsudaira Sadanobu led the Kansei Reforms to improve the finances of the shogunate. After Ienari's death, from 1841 to 1843, Mizuno Tadakuni led the Tenpo Reforms, but the effects of these reforms were limited.[85]
Successive shoguns held the highest or near-highest court ranks, higher than most court nobles. They were made Shō ni-i (
The Bakumatsu era and the end of the shogunate and the warrior class
editThe beginning of the Bakumatsu era at the end of the Edo period is the subject of various theories, and can be dated to the 1820s and 1830s, when the shogunate's rule became unstable, or to the Tenpō Reforms of 1841–1843, or to Matthew C. Perry's arrival in Japan in 1853 and his call for the opening of the country. On the other hand, the end point is clear, when the 15th Shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, returned the authority to govern Japan to Emperor Meiji.[96]
During this period, the shogunate, the imperial court, the various han (
The Chōshū Domain was the most radical, advocating the overthrow of the shogunate, emperor-centered politics, and the defeat of foreign powers. They expanded their political power through exchanges with Sanjo Sanetomi and others in the imperial court who shared their ideology. In response, the Satsuma and Aizu domains and some aristocrats who supported the Kōbu gattai expelled Sanjo Sanetomi and the Chōshū Domain from Kyoto in a political uprising on August 18 of the lunar calendar in 1863. In 1864, some forces of the Chōshū Domain marched toward Kyoto in the Kinmon incident, but the combined forces of the shogunate, the Satsuma Domain, and the Aizu Domain defeated the Chōshū Domain. In 1864, the Shogunate sent a large force against the rebellious Chōshū Domain in the First Chōshū expedition. The Shogunate won the war without a fight, as the leaders of the Chōshū Domain committed seppuku. Meanwhile, the Chōshū Domain was defeated by foreign allied forces in the Shimonoseki campaign, and the Satsuma Domain engaged the British forces in the Bombardment of Kagoshima. Both domains realized that Japan was militarily behind the Western powers, and they promoted reforms within their domains while strengthening their will to overthrow the shogunate.[96][97]
In 1866, Sakamoto Ryōma brokered a dramatic reconciliation between the previously hostile Chōshū and Satsuma domains, and the Chōshū and Satsuma domains formed the Satchō Alliance. In 1866, the shogunate launched the Second Chōshū expedition, but was defeated by the Chōshū Domain, severely damaging the shogunate's prestige. The Satsuma Domain refused the shogunate's order to go to war. In 1867, the 15th shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, finally returned power to Emperor Meiji, ending the Edo period and 700 years of shogunate rule over Japan.[96][97][98]
From 1868 to 1869, the imperial forces, led by the Chōshū and Satsuma domains, and the former shogunate forces, led by the Aizu Domain, fought the Boshin War, which the imperial forces won. With this war, the domestic pacification of the imperial forces was nearly complete, and with the Meiji Restoration, Japan began to rapidly modernize and emerge as an international military and economic power. The rapid modernization of Japan during the Meiji era (1868–1912) was aided by the fact that, under the rule of successive Tokugawa shoguns, many Japanese were educated in terakoya (
The Satsuma Rebellion of 1877 was the last battle between the imperial forces and the disenfranchised ex-samurai and the last civil war in Japan. As a result of this war, the warrior class ended its history.[100]
The Honjō Masamune was inherited by successive shoguns and it represented the Tokugawa shogunate.[101] It was crafted by swordsmith Masamune (1264–1343) and recognized as one of the finest Japanese swords in history. After World War 2, in December 1945, Tokugawa Iemasa gave the sword to a police station at Mejiro and it went missing.[102][103]
Heirs of the Tokugawa shogun
editDuring the reign of the third shogun, Tokugawa Iemitsu, the ōoku (
The Owari, Kishū (Kii), and Mito Tokugawa families, called the gosanke (
In order to keep the shogun's lineage alive, the 8th Shogun, Yoshimune, had his children establish the Tayasu, Hitotsubashi, and Shimizu Tokugawa families, which were called the gosankyō (
Timelines
editTimeline of the Kamakura shogunate
edit![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/fl3ocmmpl28mn5fqoxs5aequ5dpwbzd.png)
Timeline of the Ashikaga shogunate
edit![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/qhvgwa7kb8wf2cisntgowhfygun2w7f.png)
Timeline of the Tokugawa shogunate
edit![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/htntxq9w9z77nt6ta88bbet25sxojgs.png)
Shogunate
editThe term bakufu (
The shogunate system was originally established under the Kamakura shogunate by Minamoto no Yoritomo after the Genpei War, although theoretically the state, and therefore the Emperor, still held de jure ownership of all land in Japan. The system had some feudal elements, with lesser territorial lords pledging their allegiance to greater ones. Samurai were rewarded for their loyalty with agricultural surplus, usually rice, or labor services from peasants. In contrast to European feudal knights, samurai were not landowners.[110] The hierarchy that held this system of government together was reinforced by close ties of loyalty between the daimyō, samurai, and their subordinates.
Each shogunate was dynamic, not static. Power was constantly shifting and authority was often ambiguous. The study of the ebbs and flows in this complex history continues to occupy the attention of scholars. Each shogunate encountered competition. Sources of competition included the Emperor and the court aristocracy, the remnants of the imperial governmental systems, the daimyōs, the shōen system, the great temples and shrines, the sōhei, the shugo and jitō, the jizamurai and early modern daimyō. Each shogunate reflected the necessity of new ways of balancing the changing requirements of central and regional authorities.[111]
Relationship with the emperor
editSince Minamoto no Yoritomo turned the figure of the shogun into a permanent and hereditary position and until the Meiji Restoration, there were two ruling classes in Japan:
- The emperor or tennō (
天皇 , lit. "Heavenly Sovereign"),[112] who acted as "chief priest" of the official religion of the country, Shinto. - The shogun, head of the army who also enjoyed civil, military, diplomatic and judicial authority.[113] Although in theory the shogun was an emperor's servant, it became the true power behind the throne.[114]
No shogun tried to usurp the throne, even when they had at their disposal the military power of the territory. There were two reasons primarily:[115]
- Theoretically the shogun received the power of the emperor, so this was his symbol of authority.
- There was a sentimentalist tradition created by priests and religious who traced the imperial line from the "age of the gods" into an "eternal line unbroken by the times". According to Japanese mythology, the emperor was a direct descendant of Amaterasu, goddess of the sun.
Unable to usurp the throne, the shoguns sought throughout history to keep the emperor away from the country's political activity, relegating them from the sphere of influence. One of the few powers that the imperial house could retain was that of being able to "control time" through the designation of the Japanese Nengō or Eras and the issuance of calendars.[116]
Emperors twice tried to recover the power they enjoyed before the establishment of the shogunate. In 1219 the Emperor Go-Toba accused the Hōjō as outlaws. Imperial troops mobilized, leading to the Jōkyū War (1219–1221), which would culminate in the third Battle of Uji (1221). During this, the imperial troops were defeated and the emperor Go-Toba was exiled.[117] With the defeat of Go-Toba, the samurai government over the country was confirmed.[117] At the beginning of the fourteenth century the Emperor Go-Daigo decided to rebel, but the Hōjō, who were then regents, sent an army from Kamakura. The emperor fled before the troops arrived and took the imperial insignia.[118] The shogun named his own emperor, giving rise to the era Nanboku-chō period (
During the 1850s and 1860s, the shogunate was severely pressured both abroad and by foreign powers. It was then that various groups angry with the shogunate for the concessions made to the various European countries found in the figure of the emperor an ally through which they could expel the Tokugawa shogunate from power. The motto of this movement was Sonnō jōi (
Legacy
editToday, the head of the Japanese government is the Prime Minister. The usage of the term "shogun" has nevertheless continued in colloquialisms. A retired Prime Minister who still wields considerable power and influence behind the scenes is called a "shadow shogun" (
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Wells, John (3 April 2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
- ^ a b c The Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary, ISBN 0-8048-0408-7
- ^ Spafford, D. "Emperor and Shogun, Pope and King: The Development of Japan's Warrior Aristocracy." Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts, Vol. 88, No. 1/4, (2014), pp. 10-19.
- ^ "Shogun". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
- ^ a b c d
平 氏 政権 の登場 (PDF) (in Japanese). NHK. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024. - ^ a b c
豊臣 秀吉 はなぜ「征夷大将軍 」ではなく「関白 」になったのか――秀吉 をめぐる「三 つのなぜ」 (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun. 24 September 2023. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024. - ^ a b c d
秀吉 はなぜ征夷大将軍 ではなく、関白 を選 んだか (in Japanese). Nikkei Business. 14 January 2017. Archived from the original on 5 September 2023. Retrieved 29 February 2024. - ^
豊臣 体制 の解体 へと家康 が利用 した「征夷大将軍 」という権威 (in Japanese). nippon.com. 19 November 2023. Archived from the original on 6 December 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2024. - ^ a b 5
分 でわかる征夷大将軍 !主 な将軍 一覧 、源 氏 しかなれない説 などを簡単 に紹介 (in Japanese). Honcierge. 11 December 2021. Archived from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2024. - ^ a b c
織田 信長 (in Japanese). Japan Knowledge. Archived from the original on 19 February 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024. - ^ Beasley, William G. (1955). Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868, p. 321.
- ^ Totman, Conrad (1966). "Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 26: 102–124. doi:10.2307/2718461. JSTOR 2718461.
- ^ "Yamasa Online Kanji Dictionary". Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ "Yamasa Online Kanji Dictionary". Archived from the original on 1 February 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ Turnbull, 2006a:21 & 22.
- ^ Turnbull, 2006a:207.
- ^ Friday, 2007:108.
- ^ Hall, 1991:241.
- ^ Adolphson, 2007:341.
- ^ There is no consensus among the various sources on this list, since some authors consider Tajihi no Agatamori to be the original shogun, whereas others regard Ōtomo no Otomaro or even Sakanoue no Tamuramaro as being the first, and still others avoid the problem entirely by starting from the first Kamakura shogun only.
- ^ Cranston, 1998:361.
- ^ Samurai Archives. "Early Japan". Archived from the original on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ Cranston, 1998:427.
- ^ Sansom, 1931:201.
- ^ a b Takekoshi, 2004:96.
- ^ Caiger, 1997:339.
- ^ Shively, 1999:xviii.
- ^ a b c De Bary et al., 2001:266.
- ^ a b c d The history files. "Shoguns of Japan". Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ Shively et al., 1999:30.
- ^ Adolphson et al, 2007:334.
- ^ Turnbull, 2005:16.
- ^ a b c Deal, 2007:100–101.
- ^ Perkins, 1998b:292.
- ^ a b Varley, 1994:243.
- ^ a b Perkins, 1998b:295.
- ^ a b c Murdoch, 1996:791.
- ^ Deal, 2007:48.
- ^
征夷大将軍 ―もう一 つの国家 主権 (in Japanese). Books Kinokuniya. Retrieved 7 March 2011. - ^ Andressen & Osborne, 2002:48.
- ^ Ramirez-faria, 283.
- ^ a b 【
藤原 道長 はなぜ躍進 ?】摂関 政治 をわかりやすく説明 する方法 (in Japanese). Tomonokai. 19 July 2015. Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2024. - ^ a b
摂関 政治 で最盛 期 をき上 げた藤原 氏 とは、いかなる由緒 を持 つ氏族 なのか (in Japanese). Yahoo News. 4 January 2024. Archived from the original on 12 March 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024. - ^ a b
摂関 政治 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2024. - ^ a b c
平将門 の乱 は何 が原因 ?平将門 の生涯 や、事件 の背景 、その後 の影響 を解説 (in Japanese). Shogakukan. 8 November 2022. Archived from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024. - ^
平将門 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024. - ^
頼朝 のライバル木曽 義仲 がた辿 った生涯 と人物 像 に迫 る源平 合戦 で活躍 したその武略 とは? (in Japanese). Shogakukan. 3 April 2022. Archived from the original on 1 December 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2024. - ^
鎌倉 幕府 は何 年 に成立 ?正解 を言 えますか (in Japanese). Toyo keizai. 9 June 2016. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^ Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Kamakura-jidai" in Japan Encyclopedia, p. 459.
- ^ "...not only was the Heian system of imperial-aristocratic rule still vigorous during the twelfth century, but also it remained the essential framework within which the bakufu, during its lifetime, was obliged to operate. In this sense, the Heian pattern of government survived into the fourteenth century – to be destroyed with the Kama-kura bakufu rather than by it." Warrior Rule in Japan, p. 1. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ "shogun | Japanese title". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
- ^ a b c
北条 時政 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. 9 June 2016. Archived from the original on 5 April 2024. Retrieved 5 April 2024. - ^ a b c d e f g h i j
執権 政治 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 5 April 2024. - ^ a b c d e f g
建 武 の新政 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 6 April 2024. Retrieved 6 April 2024. - ^ a b
得 宗 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 6 April 2024. Retrieved 6 April 2024. - ^ a b
鎌倉 幕府 とは (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 6 April 2024. Retrieved 6 April 2024. - ^
内 管領 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 6 April 2024. Retrieved 6 April 2024. - ^ a b Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan, 1134–1615. United States: Stanford University Press.
- ^ a b Hall, John Whitney (1 January 1977). Japan in the Muromachi Age. University of California Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-520-02888-3.
- ^ conflicting start dates of 1336 and 1338 are listed across different sources.
- ^ a b
守護 大名 と戦国 武将 (in Japanese). The Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2024. - ^
第 3代 将軍 /足利 義満 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024. - ^ a b c d
応仁 ・文明 の乱 (in Japanese). Kyoto City. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2024. - ^
嘉吉 の乱 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024. - ^ a b c
応仁 の乱 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024. - ^
明 応 の政変 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Retrieved 29 March 2024. - ^
大物 崩 れ (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2024. - ^
三好 長慶 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Retrieved 29 March 2024. - ^ a b
足利 義輝 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024. - ^
足利 義輝 の壮絶 すぎる30年 を約 15000字 で徹底 解説 。将軍 としての使命 とは。 (in Japanese). Shogakukan. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2024. - ^ a b
安土 桃山 時代 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 25 December 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^ a b "The 3 Unifiers of Japan". Denver Art Museum. 12 May 2016. Archived from the original on 27 February 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
- ^ a b
織田 信長 に与 えられた官位 「右 近衛 大将 」が意味 すること (in Japanese). 10m TV. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^
織田 信長 (in Japanese). Japan Knowledge. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2024. - ^ 「
麒麟 がくる」コラム】織田 信長 はどんどん昇進 。信長 は官職 についてどう考 えていたのか (in Japanese). Yahoo News. 6 January 2021. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^ NHK
大河 ドラマ「麒麟 がくる」に登場 古 い権威 を無視 し、あえて将軍 にならなかった織田 信長 のリーダー論 2/3 (in Japanese). IT Media. 18 January 2020. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2024. - ^ NHK
大河 ドラマ「麒麟 がくる」に登場 古 い権威 を無視 し、あえて将軍 にならなかった織田 信長 のリーダー論 3/3 (in Japanese). IT Media. 18 January 2020. Archived from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 21 March 2024. - ^ 「
麒麟 がくる」コラム】織田 信長 が朝廷 に三 職 推任を強要 したので、本能寺 の変 が起 こったのか (in Japanese). Yahoo News. 9 February 2021. Archived from the original on 21 March 2024. Retrieved 21 March 2024. - ^
豊臣 秀吉 (in Japanese). Japan Knowledge. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024. - ^ a b c
関ヶ原 の戦 い (in Japanese). National Archives of Japan. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^ a b
豊臣 秀次 (in Japanese). Japan Knowledge. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2024. - ^ a b
新説 !豊臣 家 を滅 ぼした「組織 運営 」の大 失敗 (in Japanese). Toyo Keizai. 22 May 2016. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 10 March 2024. - ^ a b どうして
豊臣 政権 は短命 だったのか?存続 のカギは弟 ・豊臣 秀長 が握 っていた (in Japanese). Yahoo News. 1 September 2023. Archived from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024. - ^
江戸 時代 とは (in Japanese). The Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 19 June 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2024. - ^ a b
天保 の改革 (in Japanese). The Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024. - ^ a b
大坂 の陣 . Japan Knowledge (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 4 February 2023. Retrieved 7 March 2024. - ^ Nussbaum, "Ogosho" at p. 738.
- ^
禁中 並 公家 諸 法度 で戦 をなくす. Shukyō Shimbun (in Japanese). 15 January 2024. Archived from the original on 9 March 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^ Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (Winter 1991). "In Name Only: Imperial Sovereignty in Early Modern Japan". Journal of Japanese Studies. 17 (1): 25–57. doi:10.2307/132906. JSTOR 132906.
- ^
徳川 家康 公 について. Kunōzan Tōshō-gū (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 1 February 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024. - ^ 「
生類 憐みの令 」の動物 観 (上 ). J stage (in Japanese). p. 12-16. Archived from the original on 13 September 2021. Retrieved 8 April 2024. - ^
阿部 ,道生 ; アベ, ミチオ; Abe, Michio (February 2022).生命 倫理 の視点 からみた徳川 綱吉 の治世 についての研究 . Tsurumi University (in Japanese) (59): 103-106. Retrieved 8 April 2024. - ^
享 保 の改革 (in Japanese). The Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024. - ^
田沼 意次 (in Japanese). The Japanese Sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024. - ^
家格 . Kotobank (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024. - ^ a b c d
幕末 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024. - ^ a b c d
第 27回 幕府 の滅亡 (in Japanese). NHK. Archived from the original on 19 March 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2024. - ^ "Japan". The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book. 1992. pp. 34–59. ISBN 0-7166-0092-7.
- ^
明治 日本 の産業 革命 (in Japanese). nippon.com. 6 August 2019. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2024. - ^
西南 戦争 西郷 隆盛 と日本 最後 の内戦 (in Japanese). Chuko Shinsyo. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2024. - ^ http://internal.tbi.net/~max/ff9ref2.htm History of Masamune by Jim Kurrasch Archived April 28, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Mystery of The Enigmatic Honjo Masamune Sword". www.swordsofnorthshire.com. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
- ^ Schoppert, Stephanie (14 March 2017). "This Japanese Relic Disappeared After WWII and Has Never Been Found". History Collection. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
- ^
大奥 とは?徳川 幕府 を支 えた“女 たちの最前線 ”を3分 で解説 (in Japanese). Shogakukan. 5 October 2021. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^ a b
勤務 先 が男子 禁制 の大奥 !?大奥 に出入 りできた男性 たち (in Japanese). Rekishijin. 29 March 2023. Archived from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2024. - ^
徳川 家 の将軍 は思 うがままに性 を享楽 できなかった?「大奥 の床 事情 」 (in Japanese). Rekishijin. 1 October 2021. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^ a b
徳川 御三家 ・徳川 御 三 卿 (in Japanese). The Nagoya Japanese sword Museum Nagoya Touken World. Archived from the original on 8 November 2022. Retrieved 9 March 2024. - ^ Grossberg, Kenneth A. (1976). "From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch. The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 31 (1): 34. doi:10.2307/2384184. ISSN 0027-0741
- ^ "Shogunate | History & Facts | Britannica". 15 September 2023.
- ^ Bentley, Jerry. Traditions and Encounters. pp. 301–302. ISBN 978-0-07-325230-8.
- ^ Mass, J. et al., eds. (1985). The Bakufu in Japanese History, p. 189.
- ^ Mitchelhill & Green, 2003:59.
- ^ Kuno, 2007:245.
- ^ Davis, 2001:205.
- ^ Roth, 2007:103.
- ^ Fiévé & Waley, 2003:235.
- ^ a b Turnbull, 2006a:41.
- ^ Turnbull, 2006a:43.
- ^ Fiévé & Waley, 2003:236.
- ^
闇 将軍 . Kotobank (in Japanese). - ^ "Ichiro Ozawa: the shadow shogun". The Economist. 10 September 2009. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020.
Bibliography
edit- Adolphson, Mikael; Edward Kamens, Stacie Matsumoto (2007). Heian Japan: Centers and Peripheries. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-3013-X.
- Friday, Karl (2007). The First Samurai: The Life and Legend of the Warrior Rebel, Taira Masakado. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-76082-X.
- Hall, John Whitney; James L. McClain, Marius B. Jansen (1991). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22355-5.
- Iwao, Seiichi; Teizō Iyanaga, Maison Franco-Japonaise Tōkyō, Susumu Ishii, Shōichirō Yoshida (2002). Maisonneuve & Larose. ISBN 2-7068-1575-2.
- Cranston, Edwin (1998). A Waka Anthology: Volume One: The Gem-Glistening Cup. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3157-8.
- Sansom, George Bailey (1931). Japan: A Short Cultural History. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0954-8.
- Takekoshi, Yosaburō (2004). The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-32379-7.
- Shively, Donald; John Whitney Hall, William H. McCullough (1999). The Cambridge History of Japan: Heian Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22353-9.
- De Bary, William Theodore; Yoshiko Kurata Dykstra; George Tanabe; Paul Varley (2001). Sources of Japanese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12139-3.
- Turnbull, Stephen (2005). Samurai Commanders (1) 940–1576. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-743-3.
- Turnbull, Stephen (2006a). Samuráis, la historia de los grandes guerreros de Japón. Libsa. ISBN 84-662-1229-9.
- Deal, William (2007). Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-533126-5.
- Perkins, Dorothy (1998). The Samurai of Japan: A Chronology from Their Origin in the Heian Era (794–1185) to the Modern Era. Diane Publishing. ISBN 0-7881-4525-8.
- Perkins, George. (1998). The Clear Mirror: A Chronicle of the Japanese Court During the Kamakura Period (1185–1333). Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2953-0.
- Murdoch, James (1996). A History of Japan: 1652–1868. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15417-0.
- Hall, John Whitney (1 January 1977). Japan in the Muromachi Age. University of California Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-520-02888-3.
- Grossberg, Kenneth A. (1976). "From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch. The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 31 (1): 34. doi:10.2307/2384184. ISSN 0027-0741.
- Roth, Andrew (15 March 2007). Dilemma in Japan. Roth Press. ISBN 978-1-4067-6311-9.
- Fiévé, Nicolas; Waley, Paul (2003). Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective: Place, Power and Memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo. Routledge. ISBN 0-4154-0581-5.
- Andressen, Curtis; Milton Osborne (2002). A Short History of Japan: From Samurai to Sony. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86508-516-2.
- Ramírez-Faria, Carlos. Concise Encyclopedia of World History. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 81-269-0775-4.
- Mitchelhill, Jennifer; David Green (2003). Castles of the Samurai: Power and Beauty. Kodansha International. ISBN 4-7700-2954-3.
- Kuno, Yoshi (2007). Japanese Expansion on the Asiatic Continent - Volume I. Read Books. ISBN 1-4067-2253-7.
- Davis, Paul (2001). 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-514366-3.
Further reading
edit- Beasley, William G. (1955). Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868. London: Oxford University Press. [reprinted by RoutledgeCurzon, London, 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-713508-2 (cloth)]
- Columbia University (2000). "Japan: History: Early History to the Ashikaga Shoguns". Factmonster. Archived from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2007.
- Brazell, Karen (November 1972). "The Changing of the Shogun 1289: An Excerpt from Towazugatari". The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese. 8 (1): 58–65. doi:10.2307/489093. JSTOR 489093.
- Brock, Karen L. (Winter 1995). "The Shogun's 'Painting Match'". Monumenta Nipponica. 50 (4): 433–484. doi:10.2307/2385589. JSTOR 2385589.
- Department of Asian Art. "Shoguns and Art". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
- Grossberg, Kenneth A. (August 1976). "Bakufu Bugyonin: The Size of the lower bureaucracy in Muromachi Japan". The Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (4): 651–654. doi:10.2307/2053677. JSTOR 2053677. S2CID 159952736.
- Grossberg, Kenneth A. (Spring 1976). "From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch. The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 31 (1): 29–49. doi:10.2307/2384184. JSTOR 2384184.
- "Japan". The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book. 1992. pp. 34–59. ISBN 0-7166-0092-7.
- Mass, Jeffrey P. and William B. Hauser, eds. (1985). The Bakufu in Japanese History. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- McCune, George M. (May 1946). "The Exchange of Envoys between Korea and Japan During the Tokugawa Period". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 5 (3): 308–325. doi:10.2307/2049052. JSTOR 2049052. S2CID 161425409.
- Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 48943301
- Ravina, Mark (November 1995). "State-Building and Political Economy in Early-modern Japan". The Journal of Asian Studies. 54 (4): 997–1022. doi:10.2307/2059957. JSTOR 2059957. S2CID 154960133.
- Seigle, Cecilia Segawa (December 1999). "The Shogun's Consort: Konoe Hiroko and Tokugawa Ienobu". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 59 (2): 485–522. doi:10.2307/2652720. JSTOR 2652720.
- Hurst, C. Cameron III; Smith, Henry (November 1981). "Review of Learning from Shogun: Japanese History and Western Fantasy, by Henry Smith". The Journal of Asian Studies. 41 (1): 158–159. doi:10.2307/2055644. JSTOR 2055644.
- Sansom, George. 1961. A History of Japan, 1134–1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0525-7
- "Shogun". The World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 17. World Book. 1992. pp. 432–433. ISBN 0-7166-0092-7.
- Stephane Lun
倫 世 豪 . A Guide on Shinsengumi: the background and management. 2021 Kindle Paperwhite version. Amazon.com - Sinsengumi, Bakumatuisin (2003).
仙台 藩主 . Bakusin (in Japanese). Retrieved 17 April 2007. - Smith, Henry, ed. (1980). Learning from Shogun: Japanese History and Western Fantasy (PDF). Santa Barbara: University of California Program in Asian Studies.
- Totman, Conrad (1966). "Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 26: 102–124. doi:10.2307/2718461. JSTOR 2718461.
- Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (Winter 1991). "In Name Only: Imperial Sovereignty in Early Modern Japan". Journal of Japanese Studies. 17 (1): 25–57. doi:10.2307/132906. JSTOR 132906.
External links
edit- Media related to Shoguns at Wikimedia Commons