Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary

Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary (Vietnamese: từ Hán Việt, Chữ Hán: 詞し漢かん越えつ, literally 'Chinese-Vietnamese words') is a layer of about 3,000 monosyllabic morphemes of the Vietnamese language borrowed from Literary Chinese with consistent pronunciations based on Middle Chinese. Compounds using these morphemes are used extensively in cultural and technical vocabulary. Together with Sino-Korean and Sino-Japanese vocabularies, Sino-Vietnamese has been used in the reconstruction of the sound categories of Middle Chinese. Samuel Martin grouped the three together as "Sino-xenic". There is also an Old Sino-Vietnamese layer consisting of a few hundred words borrowed individually from Chinese in earlier periods. These words are treated by speakers as native words. More recent loans from southern Chinese languages, usually names of foodstuffs such as lạp xưởng 'Chinese sausage' (from Cantonese 臘腸; 腊肠; laahpchéung), are not treated as Sino-Vietnamese but more direct borrowings.

Estimates of the proportion of words of Sinitic origin in the Vietnamese lexicon vary from one third to half and even to 70%. The proportion tends towards the lower end in speech and towards the higher end in technical writing. In the famous Từ điển tiếng Việt dictionary by Vietnamese linguist Hoàng Phê, about 40% percent of vocabulary are of Sinitic origin.

It has also been theorised that some Old-Sino-Vietnamese words came from a language shift from a population of Annamese Middle Chinese speakers that lived in the Red River Delta, in northern Vietnam, to proto-Viet-Muong.

Monosyllabic loanwords

A comparison between Sino-Vietnamese (left) vocabulary with Mandarin and Cantonese pronunciations below and native Vietnamese vocabulary (right).

As a result of a thousand years of Chinese control, a small number of Sinitic words were borrowed into Vietnamese, called Old Sino-Vietnamese layer. Furthermore, a thousand years of use of Literary Chinese after independence, a considerable number of Sinitic words were borrowed, called the Sino-Vietnamese layer. These layers were first systematically studied by linguist Wang Li.

The ancestor of the Vietic languages was atonal and sesquisyllabic, featured many consonant clusters, and made use of affixes. The northern Vietic varieties ancestral to Vietnamese and Muong have long been in contact with Tai languages and Chinese as part of a zone of convergence known as the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area. As a result, most languages of this area, including Middle Chinese and Vietnamese, are analytic, with almost all morphemes monosyllabic and lacking inflection. The phonological structure of their syllables is also similar. Traces of the original consonant clusters can be found in materials from the 17th century, but have disappeared from modern Vietnamese.

The Old Sino-Vietnamese layer was introduced after the Chinese conquest of the kingdom of Nanyue, including the northern part of Vietnam, in 111 BC. The influence of the Chinese language was particularly felt during the Eastern Han period (25–190 AD), due to increased Chinese immigration and official efforts to sinicize the territory. This layer consists of roughly 400 words, which have been fully assimilated and are treated by Vietnamese speakers as native words.

The much more extensive Sino-Vietnamese proper was introduced with Chinese rhyme dictionaries such as the Qieyun in the late Tang dynasty (618–907). Vietnamese scholars used a systematic rendering of Middle Chinese within the phonology of Vietnamese to derive consistent pronunciations for the entire Chinese lexicon. After driving out the Chinese in 880, the Vietnamese sought to build a state on the Chinese model, using Literary Chinese for all formal writing, including administration and scholarship, until the early 20th century. Around 3,000 words entered Vietnamese over this period. Some of these were re-introductions of words borrowed at the Old Sino-Vietnamese stage, with different pronunciations due to intervening sound changes in Vietnamese and Chinese, and often with a shift in meaning.

Examples of multiple-borrowed Sinitic words

Chinese (Old > Middle)	Old Sino-Vietnamese	Sino-Vietnamese
味あじ *mjəts > mjɨjH	mùi 'smell, odor'	vị 'flavor, taste'
本ほん *pənʔ > pwonX	vốn 'capital, funds'	bản 'root, foundation'
役やく *wjek > ywek	việc 'work, event'	dịch 'service, corvee'
帽ぼう *muks > mawH	mũ 'hat'	mạo 'hat'
鞋 *gre > hɛ	giày 'shoe'	hài 'shoe'
嫁よめ *kras > kæH	gả 'marry'	giá 'marry'
婦ふ *bjəʔ > bjuwX	vợ 'wife'	phụ 'woman'
跪 *gjojʔ > gjweX	cúi 'bow, prostrate oneself'	quỳ 'kneel'
禮れい *rijʔ > lejX	lạy 'kowtow'	lễ 'ceremony'
法ほう *pjap > pjop	phép 'rule, law'	pháp 'rule, law'

Wang Li followed Henri Maspero in identifying a problematic group of forms with "softened" initials g-, gi, d- and v- as Sino-Vietnamese loans that had been affected by changes in colloquial Vietnamese. Most scholars now follow André-Georges Haudricourt in assigning these words to the Old Sino-Vietnamese layer.

Sino-Vietnamese shows a number of distinctive developments from Middle Chinese:

• Sino-Vietnamese distinguishes Early Middle Chinese palatal and retroflex sibilants, which are identified in all modern Chinese languages, and had already merged by the Late Middle Chinese period.
• Sino-Vietnamese reflects Late Middle Chinese labiodental initials, which were not distinguished from labial stops at the Early Middle Chinese phase.
• Middle Chinese grade II finals yield a palatal medial -y- like northern Chinese languages but unlike southern ones. For example, Middle Chinese 交 kæw yields SV giao, Cantonese gaau and Beijing jiāo.

Modern compounds

Up until the early 20th century, Literary Chinese was the vehicle of administration and scholarship, not only in China, but also in Vietnam, Korea and Japan, similar to Latin in medieval Europe. Though not a spoken language, this shared written language was read aloud in different places according to local traditions derived from Middle Chinese pronunciation: the literary readings in various parts of China and Sino-Xenic pronunciations in the other countries.

As contact with the West grew, Western works were translated into Literary Chinese and read by the literate. In order to translate words for new concepts (political, religious, scientific, medical and technical terminology) scholars in these countries coined new compounds formed from Chinese morphemes and written with Chinese characters. The local readings of these compounds were readily adopted into the respective local vernaculars of Japan, Korea and Vietnam. For example, the Chinese mathematician Li Shanlan created hundreds of translations of mathematical terms, including 代數だいすう學がく ('replace-number-study') for 'algebra', yielding modern Mandarin dàishùxué, Vietnamese đại số học, Japanese daisūgaku and Korean daesuhak. Often, multiple compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, with the final choice sometimes differing between countries.

A fairly large amount of Sino-Vietnamese compounds have meanings that differ significantly from their usage in other Sinitic vocabularies. For example:

• bác sĩ (博士はかせ) is widely used with the meaning 'physician' or 'medical doctor', while in Mandarin it refers to a doctoral degree;
• tiến sĩ (進士しんし) is used to refer to 'doctoral degree', whilst in Mandarin it is used to refer to 'successful candidate in the highest imperial civil service examination'.
• bạc 鉑 'silver' is the Old Sino-Vietnamese reflex of Old Chinese *bra:g 白しろ 'white', cognate with later Sino-Vietnamese bạch 'white' and Non-Sino-Vietnamese bệch '(of complexion) chalky', yet in Mandarin 鉑 means 'thin sheet of metal' (variants: 箔はく, 薄うすき) and 鉑 (pinyin: bó) has also acquired the meaning 'platinum', whose Sino-Vietnamese name is 白金はっきん bạch kim, literally 'white gold';
• luyện kim (煉ねり金きん) means 'metallurgy' instead of its original meaning, 'alchemy';
• giáo sư (教師きょうし) means 'teacher' in Mandarin, but is now associated with 'professor' in Vietnamese.
• English "club" became 俱樂部ぶ kurabu in Japan, was borrowed to China, then to Vietnam, is read as câu lạc bộ, and abbreviated CLB, which can be an abbreviation for club.
• linh miêu (靈れい貓) means 'civet' in Mandarin but means 'lynx' in Vietnamese.
• ân nghĩa ~ ơn nghĩa (恩義おんぎ) not only retains its original Sinitic meaning "feeling of gratitude" but also acquires the extended meaning "favor, kindness".
• thời tiết (時節じせつ) is used with the meaning of 'weather", while in Mandarin, it means a 'season' (mainly refers to a specific period of time, often within the context of a particular season).
• thư viện (書院しょいん) means 'library' in Vietnamese, but in Mandarin, it refers to a 'study room' or an 'academy'.
• phương phi (芳よし菲) is an adjective meaning 'fat' or 'corpulent', but in Mandarin, it means 'fragrant' or 'fresh-smelling'.
• ung thư (癰よう疽) means 'cancer' in Vietnamese, but in Mandarin, it is a term used in traditional Chinese medicine meaning a 'skin abscess'.
• thập phân (十分じゅうぶん) means 'decimal' in Vietnamese, but in Mandarin, it means 'very'; 'extremely'.
• thương (傷きず) has the meaning 'to like, to love', while also sharing the common meaning of 'to (be) injured, wounded' with Mandarin.
• thư (書しょ) refers to a letter, while in Mandarin, it means book. (Vietnamese uses sách (冊さつ) instead)

There also a significant amount of Sino-Vietnamese compounds that are used, but the terms differ in different Sinosphere languages. Such as:

English	Vietnamese	Mandarin	Cantonese	Japanese	Korean
university student	sinh viên 生せい員いん	大學生だいがくせい/大学生だいがくせい dàxuéshēng	大學生だいがくせい/大学生だいがくせい daaihhohksāang	大学生だいがくせい daigakusei	대학생 (大學生だいがくせい) daehaksaeng
professor	giáo sư 教師きょうし	教授きょうじゅ jiàoshòu	教授きょうじゅ gaausauh	教授きょうじゅ kyōju	교수 (敎授きょうじゅ) gyosu
bachelor (academic degree)	cử nhân 舉人	學士がくし/学士がくし xuéshì	學士がくし/学士がくし hohksih	学士がくし gakushi	학사 (學士がくし) haksa
doctorate (academic degree)	tiến sĩ 進士しんし	博士はかせ bóshì	博士はかせ boksih	博士はかせ hakushi	박사 (博士はかせ) baksa
library	thư viện 書院しょいん	圖書館としょかん/图书馆 túshūguǎn	圖書館としょかん/图书馆 tòuhsyūgún	図書館としょかん toshokan	도서관 (圖書館としょかん) doseogwan
office	văn phòng 文ぶん房ぼう	事務所じむしょ/事こと务所 shìwùsuǒ	事務所じむしょ/事こと务所 sihmouhsó	事務所じむしょ jimusho	사무소 (事務所じむしょ) samuso
map	bản đồ 版圖はんと	地圖ちず/地ち图 dìtú	地圖ちず/地ち图 deihtòuh	地図ちず chizu	지도 (地圖ちず) jido
clock	đồng hồ 銅どう壺つぼ	鐘かね/钟 zhōng, 時計とけい/时计 (literary) shíjì	鍾/钟 jūng	時計とけい tokei	시계 (時計とけい) sigye
hotel; inn	khách sạn 客きゃく棧	酒さけ店てん jiǔdiàn, 旅館りょかん/旅たび馆 lǚguǎn	酒さけ店てん jáudim, 旅館りょかん/旅たび馆 léuihgún	ホテル hoteru, 旅館りょかん (traditional inn) ryokan	여관 (旅館りょかん) yeogwan
demonstration	biểu tình 表情ひょうじょう	示威じい shìwēi	示威じい sihwāi	示威じい shii	시위 (示威じい) siwi
autism	tự kỷ 自己じこ	自閉症じへいしょう/自じ闭症 zìbìzhèng	自閉症じへいしょう/自じ闭症 jihbaijing	自閉症じへいしょう jiheishō	자폐증 (自閉症じへいしょう) japyejeung

Self-coined Sino-Vietnamese compounds

Some Sino-Vietnamese compounds are entirely invented by the Vietnamese and are not used in any Chinese languages, such as linh mục 'priest' from 靈れい 'soul' and 牧まき 'shepherd', or giả kim thuật (假かり金かね術じゅつ 'art of artificial metal'), which has been applied popularly to refer to 'alchemy'. Another example is linh cẩu (靈れい狗いぬ, 'alert dog') meaning 'hyena'. Others are no longer used in modern Chinese languages or have other meanings.

Definition	Chinese characters	Vietnamese alphabet
farm	莊そう寨	trang trại
city	城しろ庯	thành phố
week	旬しゅん禮れい	tuần lễ
to be present at	現げん面めん	hiện diện
to entertain	解かい智さとし	giải trí
to lack	少しょう寸すん	thiếu thốn
to be proud	倖面	hãnh diện
pleasant to the eyes	玩目	ngoạn mục
orderly; proper	眞方まがた	chân phương
(polite, respectful) you	貴き位い	quý vị
traditional	古傳こでん	cổ truyền
festival	禮れい會かい	lễ hội
legend	玄げん話ばなし	huyền thoại
to satisfy	妥滿	thoả mãn
polite	歷れき事ごと	lịch sự
important; significant	關せき重しげる	quan trọng
millionaire	兆ちょう富とみ	triệu phú
billionaire	秭富	tỷ phú
thermometer	熱ねつ計けい	nhiệt kế
(mathematics) matrix	魔ま陣じん	ma trận
biology	生なま學がく	sinh học
subject	門かど學まなぶ	môn học
average	中平なかひら	trung bình
cosmetics	美び品ひん	mỹ phẩm
surgery	剖術	phẫu thuật
allergy	異い應おう	dị ứng
hearing-impaired	欠かけ聽	khiếm thính
bacteria; microbe; germ	微ほろ蟲むし	vi trùng
to update	及日	cập nhật
data; information	與あずか料りょう	dữ liệu
forum	演壇えんだん	diễn đàn
a smoothie (drink)	生なま素もと	sinh tố
dojo; martial art school	武たけ堂どう	võ đường
cemetery	義ぎ地ち	nghĩa địa
a surgical mask	口くち裝そう	khẩu trang
thermometer	熱ねつ計けい	nhiệt kế
television (medium)	傳つて形がた	truyền hình
broadcast	發聲はっせい	phát thanh
animation	活かつ形がた	hoạt hình
subtitles	附ふ題だい	phụ đề
to transcribe	翻こぼし音おん	phiên âm
to transliterate	轉うたて字じ	chuyển tự
visa	視み實み	thị thực
(informal) nurse; a medical assistant	醫い佐さ	y tá
a specialist in humanities; an artist, painter, musician, actor, comic, etc.	藝げい士し	nghệ sĩ
a singer	歌うた士し	ca sĩ
a musician, especially a songwriter or a composer	樂士がくし	nhạc sĩ
a poet	詩し士し	thi sĩ
a dentist	牙きば士し	nha sĩ
an artist (painter)	畫が士し	hoạ sĩ
a member of any legislative body.	議ぎ士し	nghị sĩ
prison	寨監	trại giam
victim	難なん人ひと	nạn nhân
special forces	特攻とっこう	đặc công

Proper names

See also: Vietnamese exonyms

Since Sino-Vietnamese provides a Vietnamese form for almost all Chinese characters, it can be used to derive a Vietnamese form for any Chinese word or name. For example, the name of Chinese leader Xi Jinping consists of the Chinese characters 習近平ひらた. Applying Sino-Vietnamese reading to each character yields the Vietnamese translation of his name, Tập Cận Bình.

Some Western names and words, approximated to Chinese languages often through Mandarin or in some cases approximated in Japanese and then borrowed into Chinese languages, were further approximated in Vietnamese. For example, Portugal is transliterated as 葡萄ぶどう牙きば (pinyin: Pútáoyá; Cantonese Yale: Pòuhtòuhngàh) and becomes Bồ Đào Nha in Vietnamese. England (英えい格かく蘭らん; Yīnggélán; Yīnggaaklàahn) became Anh Cát Lợi (英えい吉利よしとし), shortened to Anh (英えい), while United States became Mỹ Lợi Gia (美び利加りか), shortened to Mỹ (美よし). The formal name for the United States in Vietnamese is Hoa Kỳ (花はな旗はた); this is a former Sinitic name of the United States and translates literally as "flower flag".

Country	Sinitic name	Mandarin Pinyin	Cantonese Yale	Vietnamese name
Australia	澳大利おおとし亞あ	Àodàlìyǎ	Oudaaihleih'a	Úc (澳)
Austria	奧地おくち利り	Àodìlì	Oudeihleih	Áo (奧おく)
Belgium	比ひ利り時じ	Bǐlìshí	Béileihsìh	Bỉ (比ひ)
Czechia	捷とし克かつ	Jiékè	Jithāak	Tiệp Khắc (捷とし克かつ)
France	法ほう蘭らん西にし	Fǎlánxī (China), Fàlánxī (Taiwan)	Faatlàahnsāi	Pháp (法ほう)
Germany	德とく意志いし	Déyìzhì	Dākyiji	Đức (德とく)
Italy	意い大利おおとし	Yìdàlì	Yidaaihleih	Ý (意い)
Netherlands	荷に蘭らん (from 'Holland', a misnomer)	Hélán	Hòhlāan	Hà Lan (荷に蘭らん)
Prussia	普ひろし魯士	Púlǔshì	Póulóuhsih	Phổ (普ひろし)
Russia	俄にわか羅ら斯	Éluósī	Ngòhlòhsī	Nga (俄にわか)
Spain	西にし班はん牙きば	Xībānyá	Sāibāanngàh	Tây Ban Nha (西にし班はん牙きば)
Yugoslavia	南みなみ斯拉夫おっと	Nán Sīlāfū	Nàahm Sīlāaifū	Nam Tư (南みなみ斯)

Except for the oldest and most deeply ingrained Sino-Vietnamese names, modern Vietnamese instead uses direct phonetic transliterations for foreign names, in order to preserve the original spelling and pronunciation. Today, the written form of such transliterated names are almost always left unaltered; with rising levels of proficiency in English spelling and pronunciation in Vietnam, readers generally no longer need to be instructed on the correct pronunciation for common foreign names. For example, while the Sino-Vietnamese Luân Đôn remains in common usage in Vietnamese, the English equivalent London is also commonplace. Calques have also arisen to replace some Sino-Vietnamese terms. For example, the White House is usually referred to as Nhà Trắng (literally, "white house") in Vietnam, though Tòa Bạch Ốc (based on 白屋しらや) retains some currency among overseas Vietnamese.

However, China-specific names such as Trung Quốc (Middle Kingdom, 中國ちゅうごく), as well as Korean names with Chinese roots, continue to be rendered in Sino-Vietnamese rather than the romanization systems used in other languages. Examples include Triều Tiên (Joseon, 朝鮮ちょうせん) for both Korea as a whole and North Korea in particular, Hàn Quốc (Hanguk, 韓國かんこく) for South Korea, Bình Nhưỡng (Pyongyang, 平壤ぴょんやん), and Bàn Môn Điếm (Panmunjom, 板門店はんもんてん). Seoul, unlike most Korean place names, has no corresponding hanja; it is therefore phonetically transliterated as Xê-un.

Usage

Sino-Vietnamese words have a status similar to that of Latin-based words in English: they are used more in formal context than in everyday life. Because Chinese languages and Vietnamese use different order for subject and modifier, compound Sino-Vietnamese words or phrases might appear ungrammatical in Vietnamese sentences. For example, the Sino-Vietnamese phrase bạch mã (白馬はくば "white horse") can be expressed in Vietnamese as ngựa trắng ("horse white"). For this reason, compound words containing native Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese words are very rare and are considered improper by some. For example, chung cư ("apartment building") was originally derived from chúng cư 眾居 ("multiple dwelling"), but with the syllable chúng "multiple" replaced with chung, a "pure" Vietnamese word meaning "shared" or "together". Similarly, the literal translation of "United States", Hợp chúng quốc (合ごう眾國) is commonly mistakenly rendered as Hợp chủng quốc, with chúng (眾 - many) replaced by chủng (種たね - ethnicity, race). Another example is tiệt diện (截面; "cross-section") being replaced by tiết diện (節ふし面めん).

One interesting example is the current motto of Vietnam : “Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam / Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc”, in which all the words are Sino-Vietnamese (獨立どくりつ – 自由じゆう – 幸福こうふく).

Writing Sino-Vietnamese words with the Vietnamese alphabet causes some confusion about the origins of some terms, due to the large number of homophones in Sino-Vietnamese. For example, both 明あきら (bright) and 冥めい (dark) are read as minh, thus the word "minh" has two contradictory meanings: bright and dark (although the "dark" meaning is now esoteric and is used in only a few compound words). Perhaps for this reason, the Vietnamese name for Pluto is not Minh Vương Tinh (冥王星めいおうせい – lit. "underworld king star") as in other East Asian languages, but is Diêm Vương Tinh (閻王星ぼし) and sao Diêm Vương, named after the Hindu and Buddhist deity Yama. During the Hồ dynasty, Vietnam was officially known as Đại Ngu (大だい虞おそれ "Great Peace"). However, most modern Vietnamese know ngu (愚ぐ) as "stupid"; consequently, some misinterpret it as "Big Idiot". Conversely, the Han River in South Korea is often erroneously translated as sông Hàn (韓かん) when it should be sông Hán (漢かん) due to the name's similarity with the country name. However, the homograph/homophone problem is not as serious as it appears, because although many Sino-Vietnamese words have multiple meanings when written with the Vietnamese alphabet, usually only one has widespread usage, while the others are relegated to obscurity. Furthermore, Sino-Vietnamese words are usually not used alone, but in compound words, thus the meaning of the compound word is preserved even if individually each has multiple meanings.

Today Sino-Vietnamese texts are learnt and used mostly only by Buddhist monks since important texts such as the scriptures to pacify spirits (recited during the ritual for the Seventh Lunar month - Trai đàn Chẩn tế; 齋とき壇だん振ふ濟すみ) are still recited in Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations. Such as the chant, Nam mô A Di Đà Phật coming from 南無阿彌陀佛なむあみだぶつ.

See also

• Chữ Nôm (historical writing system modelled on Chinese characters)
• History of writing in Vietnam
• Stratum (linguistics)

References

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• Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn (1995), Giáo trình lịch sử ngữ âm tiếng Việt (sơ thảo) [Studies on the historical phonology of Vietnamese (draft)], Hanoi: Viet Nam Education Publishing House.
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Further reading

• Chiang, Chia-lu 江こう佳けい璐 (2011). Yuènán Hànzìyīn de lìshǐ céngcì yánjiū 越こし南みなみ漢かん字音じおん的てき歷史れきし層そう次じ研究けんきゅう [Study of Phonological Strata of Sino-Vietnamese] (PDF) (Thesis). Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-12.
• Chiang Chia-lu (江こう佳けい璐). (2014). 析論越えつ南みなみ漢かん字音じおん魚ぎょ虞おそれ分ぶん韻いん的てき歷史れきし層そう次じ [Discussion on the Phonological Strata of Sino-Vietnamese as Reflected in the Distinction between Rhymes Yu (魚さかな) and Yu (虞おそれ)]. Language and Linguistics, 15(5), 613–634.
• Chiang Chia-lu (江こう佳けい璐). (2018). 《安やす南國なんごく譯語やくご》所しょ反映はんえい的てき近代きんだい漢語かんご聲調せいちょう系統けいとう [The Tonal System of Early Mandarin Chinese as Reflected in Annanguo Yiyu]. 漢學かんがく研究けんきゅう, 36(2), 97–126.
• Nguyen Thanh-Tung (阮青松まつ). (2015). 漢かん越えつ語ご和漢わかん語ご的てき層そう次じ對應たいおう關係かんけい研究けんきゅう [A study of the stratal corresponding relationship between Sino-Vietnamese and Chinese] (Master's thesis). National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan.
• Phan, John D. (2010). Re-Imagining “Annam”: A New Analysis of Sino–Viet–Muong Linguistic Contact. 南方みなかた華はな裔研究けんきゅう雑ざつ志こころざし [Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies], 4, 3-24.
• Phan, John, Duong (2013). Lacquered Words: The Evolution of Vietnamese under Sinitic Influences from the 1st Century BCE through the 17th Century CE (PhD thesis). Cornell University. hdl:1813/33867.{{cite thesis}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Vu, Duc Nghieu (2010). The integration of Chinese words into the Vietnamese language (Departmental Bulletin Paper). Research Institute for World Languages, Osaka University. hdl:11094/8366.

External links

• Đào Duy Anh (1932), Hán Việt Từ Điển – a dictionary of Sino-Vietnamese words and expressions (in Vietnamese). volume 1 (A–M).
• Miyake, Marc: Umbrous umbrella (2014); Sino-Vietnamese articles (2014); Sino-Vietnamese articles 1, 2 (2013); Sino-Vietnamese articles (2012); t for *p in Vietnamese (2012); Cantonese and Sino-Vietnamese (2010); Sino-Vietnamese articles (2010); From *m to z in Old Chinese and Vietnamese (2008).