酒精 與 健康
這篇
受測
短期 影響 [编辑]
長期 影響 [编辑]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Possible_long-term_effects_of_ethanol.svg/300px-Possible_long-term_effects_of_ethanol.svg.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Health_risks_of_alcohol_consumption.svg/220px-Health_risks_of_alcohol_consumption.svg.png)
懷 孕[编辑]
心 血管 疾病 [编辑]
母乳 哺育 [编辑]
酒精 教育 [编辑]
酒精 期 望 [编辑]
藥物 治療 方案 [编辑]
酒精 使用 疾患 [编辑]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Rational_harm_assessment_of_drugs_radar_plot.svg/220px-Rational_harm_assessment_of_drugs_radar_plot.svg.png)
酒精 濫用 預 防 計 劃[编辑]
加 強 對 酒精 供應 的 限 制 。(加 強的 英 文字 第 一 個 字母 S)- 推動
和 執行 反 制 酒 後 駕 駛的行為 。(推動的 英 文字 第 一 個 字母 A) 促進 篩 檢 、簡短 干 預 、以及治療 的 易 於取得 。(促進 的 英 文字 第 一 個 字母 F)對 酒類 廣告 、贊助 、和 促銷實施 禁令 或 全面 限 制 。(實施 的 英 文字 第 一 個 字母 E)透過 消費 稅 和 定價 政策 把 酒類 價格 提 高 。(提 高 價格 的 英 文字 第 一 個 字母 R)
SAFER倡議
建議 最大 酒精 攝取 量 [编辑]
清 醒[编辑]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Breathalyzer_test_0013.png/220px-Breathalyzer_test_0013.png)
傷害 和 死亡 [编辑]
“
基 因 差異 [编辑]
酒精 性 臉紅和 呼吸 反應 [编辑]
美國 印 第 安 人 酒精 使用 疾患 [编辑]
基 因 與 酒精 攝取 量 [编辑]
性別 差異 [编辑]
酒精 使用 疾患 [编辑]
靈 敏 度 [编辑]
體 脂肪 。女性 的 體重 通常 比 男性 輕 ,而且逐磅檢 驗 ,女性 身體 比 男性 的 含有 較少的 水分 和 更 多 的 脂肪 組織 。因 為 脂肪 會 留 住 酒精 ,而水分會 稀釋 酒精 ,所以 酒精 會 在 女性 體 內停留 較長的 時間 ,也保持 較高的 濃度 ,而讓女性 的 大腦 和 其他器官 接觸 到 更 多 的 酒精 。- 酶。
女性 在 胃 部 和 肝臟 中 用 來 代謝 (分解 )酒精 的 兩 種 酶 -醇 脫 氫酶和 醛脫氫酶的 水準 較低。因 此女性 會 吸收 更 多 的 酒精 進入 血液 。 激 素 。女性 在 月經 期間 激 素 水準 的 變化 也會影響 到 女性 代謝 酒精 的 方式 。
代謝 [编辑]
抑鬱症 與 飲酒 量 [编辑]
參 見 [编辑]
參考 文獻 [编辑]
- ^ Alcohol and diabetes: Drinking safely – Mayo Clinic. [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2017-10-02). - ^ Emanuele, Nicholas V.; Swade, Terrence F. Consequences of Alcohol Use in Diabetics. Alcohol Health & Research World. 1998, 22 (3): 211–219 [2021-08-09]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2022-04-09). - ^ 3.0 3.1 Risks of Adolescent Alcohol Use. HHS.gov. 2018-01-19 [2020-06-03]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2020-08-12) (英 语). - ^ There is no safe level of alcohol, new study confirms. www.euro.who.int. [2021-05-21]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2021-05-21) (英 语). - ^ No alcohol safe to drink, global study confirms. BBC News. 2018-08-24 [2021-05-21]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2021-05-21) (英国 英 语). - ^ Stories, Daily Health. Study: No Level of Alcohol is Safe. Cleveland Clinic Newsroom. 2018-11-20 [2021-05-21]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2021-05-21) (美国 英 语). - ^ 7.0 7.1 Cheryl Platzman Weinstock. Alcohol Consumption Increases Risk of Breast and Other Cancers, Doctors Say. Scientific American. 8 November 2017 [13 November 2018]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2020-11-28).The ASCO statement, published in the Journal of Clinical Oncology, cautions that while the greatest risks are seen with heavy long-term use, even low alcohol consumption (defined as less than one drink per day) or moderate consumption (up to two drinks per day for men, and one drink per day for women because they absorb and metabolize it differently) can increase cancer risk. Among women, light drinkers have a four percent increased risk of[breast cancer, while moderate drinkers have a 23 percent increased risk of the disease.
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Noelle K. LoConte, Abenaa M. Brewster, Judith S. Kaur, Janette K. Merrill, and Anthony J. Alberg. Alcohol and Cancer: A Statement of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2017-11-07, 36 (1).
Clearly, the greatest cancer risks are concentrated in the heavy and moderate drinker categories. Nevertheless, some cancer risk persists even at low levels of consumption. A meta-analysis that focused solely on cancer risks associated with drinking one drink or fewer per day observed that this level of alcohol consumption was still associated with some elevated risk for squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus (sRR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.09 to 1.56), oropharyngeal cancer (sRR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.06 to 1.29), and breast cancer (sRR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.08), but no discernable associations were seen for cancers of the colorectum, larynx, and liver.
- ^ Global status report on alcohol and health (PDF). World Health Organization: vii. 2014 [2015-11-23]. (
原始 内容 (PDF)存 档于2016-02-22). - ^ Griswold, MG; Fullman, N; Hawley, C; Arian, N; Zimsen, SM; et al. Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet. August 2018, 392 (10152): 1015–1035. PMC 6148333
. PMID 30146330. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2.
- ^ Cancer warning labels to be included on alcohol in Ireland, minister confirms. Belfasttelegraph.co.uk (Belfast Telegraph). 2018-09-26 [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2020-04-11) (英 语). - ^ Meyer, Jerold S. and Linda F. Quenzer. Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior. Sinauer Associates, Inc.: Sunderland, Massachusetts. 2005. Page 228.
- ^ Horowitz M, Maddox A, Bochner M, et al. Relationships between gastric emptying of solid and caloric liquid meals and alcohol absorption. Am. J. Physiol. 1989, 257 (2 Pt 1): G291–6298. PMID 2764113. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.1989.257.2.G291.
- ^ Carleton College: Wellness Center: Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC). [2015-08-29]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2009-09-14). - ^ Measuring How Much You Drank: Blood Alcohol Content (BAC). Science NetLinks American Association for the Advancement of Science. [2021-08-11]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2020-06-27). - ^ Feige B, Scaal S, Hornyak M, Gann H, Riemann D. Sleep electroencephalographic spectral power after withdrawal from alcohol in alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2007, 31 (1): 19–27. PMID 17207097. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00260.x.
- ^ WHO | Global status report on alcohol and health 2018. [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2017-09-15). - ^ Alcohol Facts and Statistics. [2015-05-09]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2015-05-18). - ^ Appendix 9. Alcohol - 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines - health.gov. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2020-02-01) (英 语). - ^ New alcohol advice issued. NHS. 2016-01-08 [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2020-11-30). - ^ 21.0 21.1 GBD 2016 Alcohol Collaborators. Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet. August 2018, 392 (10152): 1015–1035. PMC 6148333
. PMID 30146330. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2.
- ^ Stockwell T, Zhao J, Panwar S, Roemer A, Naimi T, Chikritzhs T. Do "Moderate" Drinkers Have Reduced Mortality Risk? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Alcohol Consumption and All-Cause Mortality. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2016, 77 (2): 185–198. PMC 4803651
. PMID 26997174. doi:10.15288/jsad.2016.77.185.
- ^ O'Keefe, JH; Bhatti, SK; Bajwa, A; DiNicolantonio, JJ; Lavie, CJ. Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy.. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2014, 89 (3): 382–393. PMID 24582196. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005
.
- ^ Caan, Woody; Belleroche, Jackie de (编). Drink, Drugs and Dependence: From Science to Clinical Practice
1st. Routledge. 2002-04-11: 19–20. ISBN 978-0-415-27891-1.
- ^ Müller D, Koch RD, von Specht H, Völker W, Münch EM. Neurophysiologic findings in chronic alcohol abuse. Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz). March 1985, 37 (3): 129–32. PMID 2988001 (
德 语). - ^ Testino G. Alcoholic diseases in hepato-gastroenterology: a point of view. Hepatogastroenterology. 2008, 55 (82–83): 371–377. PMID 18613369.
- ^ Guerri, C.; Pascual, M.A. Mechanisms involved in the neurotoxic, cognitive, and neurobehavioral effects of alcohol consumption during adolescence. Alcohol. 2010, 44 (1): 15–26. PMID 20113871. doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2009.10.003.
- ^ Vice Admiral Richard H. Carmona. A 2005 Message to Women from the U.S. Surgeon General (PDF). 2005 [2015-06-12]. (
原始 内容 (PDF)存 档于2015-09-24). - ^ Committee to Study Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Division of Biobehavioral Sciences and Mental Disorders, Institute of Medicine. Fetal alcohol syndrome : diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 1995 [2021-09-01]. ISBN 978-0-309-05292-4. doi:10.17226/4991. (
原始 内容 存 档于2016-03-11). - ^ Australian Government National Health and Medical Research Council. [2012-11-04]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2012-11-05). - ^ Nathanson, Vivienne; Nicky Jayesinghe; George Roycroft. Is it all right for women to drink small amounts of alcohol in pregnancy? No. BMJ. 2007-10-27, 335 (7625): 857. PMC 2043444
. PMID 17962287. doi:10.1136/bmj.39356.489340.AD.
- ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Fetal Alcohol Exposure. April 2015 [2015-06-10]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2021-08-26). - ^ 33.0 33.1 Facts about FASDs. 2015-04-16 [2015-06-10]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2015-05-23). - ^ More than 3 million US women at risk for alcohol-exposed pregnancy. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016-02-02 [2016-03-03]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2016-11-21).'drinking any alcohol at any stage of pregnancy can cause a range of disabilities for their child,' said Coleen Boyle, Ph.D., director of CDC's National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities.
- ^ 35.0 35.1 Coriale; et al. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD): neurobehavioral profile, indications for diagnosis and treatment.. Rivista di Psichiatria. 2013, 48 (5): 359–69. PMID 24326748. doi:10.1708/1356.15062.
- ^ Chudley; et al, Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis, CMAJ, 2005, 172 (5 Suppl): S1–S21, PMC 557121
, PMID 15738468, doi:10.1503/cmaj.1040302
- ^ Costanzo S, Di Castelnuovo A, Donati MB, Iacoviello L, de Gaetano G. Alcohol consumption and mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010, 55 (13): 1339–1347. PMID 20338495. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2010.01.006.
- ^ Wood AM, Kaptoge S, Butterworth AS, Willeit P, Warnakula S, Bolton T, et al. Risk thresholds for alcohol consumption: combined analysis of individual-participant data for 599 912 current drinkers in 83 prospective studies.. The Lancet. 2018, 391 (10129): 1513–1523. PMC 5899998
. PMID 29676281. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30134-X.
- ^ Chiva-Blanch, Gemma; Badimon, Lina. Benefits and Risks of Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Cardiovascular Disease: Current Findings and Controversies. Nutrients. 2019-12-30, 12 (1): 108 [2021-08-11]. doi:10.3390/nu12010108. (
原始 内容 存 档于2022-05-19). - ^ Alcohol and Heart Health. American Heart Association. 2014-08-15 [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2018-07-24). - ^ One Drink a Day Raises Risk of Atrial Fibrillation. Healthline. 2021-01-15 [2021-04-25]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2021-04-28) (英 语). - ^ 42.0 42.1 {cite web|url=http://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/958.aspx?CategoryID=54&SubCategoryID=135#close%7Ctitle=Breastfeeding (页面
存 档备份,存 于互联网档案 馆) and drinking alcohol – Pregnancy and baby guide – NHS Choices|first=N. H. S.|last=Choices|date=1 May 2017}} - ^ Haastrup, MB; Pottegård, A; Damkier, P. Alcohol and Breastfeeding. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 2014, 114 (2): 168–173. PMID 24118767. S2CID 31580580. doi:10.1111/bcpt.12149
.
even in a theoretical case of binge drinking, the children would not be subjected to clinically relevant amounts of alcohol
- ^ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 Moore, Mark Harrison; Gerstein, Dean R. Alcohol and Public Policy
. National Academies. 1981: 90–93 (
英 语). - ^ Martin, Scott C. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Alcohol: Social, Cultural, and Historical Perspectives. SAGE Publications. 2014. ISBN 9781483374383 (
英 语). - ^ Grattan, Karen E.; Vogel-Sprott, M. Maintaining Intentional Control of Behavior Under Alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2001, 25 (2): 192–7. PMID 11236832. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02198.x.
- ^ 47.0 47.1 MacAndrew, C. and Edgerton. Drunken Comportment: A Social Explanation. Chicago: Aldine, 1969.
- ^ Marlatt GA, Rosenow. The think-drink effect. Psychology Today. 1981, 15: 60–93.
- ^ Nutt, D; King, LA; Saulsbury, W; Blakemore, C. Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse.. Lancet. 2007-03-24, 369 (9566): 1047–53. PMID 17382831. S2CID 5903121. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4.
- ^ 50.0 50.1 50.2 WHO | THE SAFER INITIATIVE. WHO. [2019-11-21]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2018-10-01). - ^ World Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol and health 2018.. World Health Organization,, World Health Organization. Management of Substance Abuse Team. Geneva. 2019-02-14. ISBN 978-92-4-156563-9. OCLC 1089229677.
- ^ Nations, United. Transforming governance for the 2030 agenda for sustainable development: 73–87. 2015-12-31 [2021-09-01]. doi:10.18356/e5a72957-en. (
原始 内容 存 档于2018-06-03) (英 语). - ^ Global action plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases : 2013-2020.. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. ISBN 978-92-4-150623-6. OCLC 960910741.
- ^ Sensible Drinking. Aim-digest.com. [2013-02-05]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2010-11-19). - ^ Alcohol misuse : Department of Health. Dh.gov.uk. [2013-02-05]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2010-02-09). - ^ Alcohol and health: how alcohol can affect your long and short term health. Drinkaware.co.uk. [2013-02-05]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2017-01-16). - ^
存 档副本 (PDF). [2021-09-01]. (原始 内容 (PDF)存 档于2022-04-04). - ^ Lexicon and drug terms. Who.int. 2010-12-09 [2013-02-05]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2004-07-04). - ^ MD Basharin K.G. Scientific grounding for sobriety: Western experience (PDF). 2010 [2013-02-05]. (
原始 内容 (PDF)存 档于2018-05-08). - ^ Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions (PDF). Alcoholics Anonymous World Services. April 1953 [2018-12-31]. ISBN 978-0-916856-01-4. (
原始 内容 (PDF)存 档于2017-01-16). (Electronic .PDF version, September 2005). - ^ Drinkwise Australia. DrinkWise Australia. [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2016-06-24). - ^ Johnson J, McGovern S. Alcohol related falls: an interesting pattern of injuries. Emergency Medicine Journal. 2003, 21 (2): 185–188. PMC 1726307
. PMID 14988344. doi:10.1136/emj.2003.006130.
- ^ Hoskins R, Benger J. What is the burden of alcohol-related injuries in an inner city emergency department?. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2013, 33 (9): 1532–1538. PMC 2757258
. PMID 19485974. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.00981.x.
- ^ Alcohol-attributable deaths and years of potential life lost — 11 states, 2006–2010. www.cdc.gov. [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2022-03-06). - ^ Alcohol. World health Organization. 2018-09-21 [2018-11-05]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2019-10-17). - ^ Rs671. SNPmedia. [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2018-10-22). - ^ Hui Li; et al. Refined Geographic Distribution of the Oriental ALDH2*504Lys (nee 487Lys) Variant. Ann Hum Genet. 2009, 73 (Pt 3): 335–345. PMC 2846302
. PMID 19456322. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2009.00517.x.
- ^ Yi Peng; Hong Shi; Xue-bin Qi; Chun-jie Xiao; Hua Zhong; Run-lin Z Ma; Bing Su. The ADH1B Arg47His polymorphism in East Asian populations and expansion of rice domestication in history. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2010, 10 (1): 15. PMC 2823730
. PMID 20089146. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-15.
- ^ Oota H, Pakstis AJ, Bonne-Tamir B, Goldman D, Grigorenko E, Kajuna SL, et al. The evolution and population genetics of the ALDH2 locus: random genetic drift, selection, and low levels of recombination. Ann. Hum. Genet. 2004, 68 (Pt 2): 93–109. PMID 15008789. S2CID 31026948. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00060.x.
- ^ Adams, KE; Rans, TS. Adverse reactions to alcohol and alcoholic beverages. Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 2013, 111 (6): 439–445. PMID 24267355. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2013.09.016.
- ^ Philip A. May, "Overview of Alcohol Abuse Epidemiology for American Indian Populations," in Changing Numbers, Changing Needs: American Indian Demography and Public Health, Gary D. Sandefur, Ronald R. Rindfuss, Barney Cohen, Editors. Committee on Population, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education National Research Council. National Academy Press: Washington, D.C. 1996 (PDF). [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 (PDF)存 档于2019-09-29). - ^ Gonzales, K; Roeber, J; Kanny, D; Tran, A; Saiki, C; Johnson, H; Yeoman, K; Safranek, T; Creppage, K; Lepp, A; Miller, T; Tarkhashvili, N; Lynch, KE; Watson, JR; Henderson, D; Christenson, M; Geiger, SD. Alcohol-attributable deaths and years of potential life lost--11 States, 2006-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014, 63 (10): 213–6. PMC 5779340
. PMID 24622285.
- ^ Whitesell, NR; Beals, J; Crow, CB; Mitchell, CM; Novins, DK. Epidemiology and etiology of substance use among American Indians and Alaska Natives: risk, protection, and implications for prevention. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2012, 38 (5): 376–82. PMC 4436971
. PMID 22931069. doi:10.3109/00952990.2012.694527.
- ^ Ehlers, CL. Variations in ADH and ALDH in Southwest California Indians. Alcohol Res Health. 2007, 30 (1): 14–7. PMC 3860438
. PMID 17718395.
- ^ Ehlers, CL; Liang, T; Gizer, IR. ADH and ALDH polymorphisms and alcohol dependence in Mexican and Native Americans. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2012, 38 (5): 389–94. PMC 3498484
. PMID 22931071. doi:10.3109/00952990.2012.694526.
- ^ 76.0 76.1 Ehlers CL, Gizer IR. "Evidence for a genetic component for substance dependence in Native Americans." Am J Psychiatry. 1 Feb 2013;170(2):154–164.. [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2020-01-21). - ^ Caetano, Raul; Clark, Catherine L.; Tam, Tammy. Alcohol consumption among racial/ethnic minorities. Alcohol Health and Research World. 1998, 22 (4): 233–241. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.556.6875
.
- ^ Karen Chartier and Raul Caetano, "Ethnicity and health disparities in alcohol research," Alcohol Res Health 2010, vol. 33: 1-2 pp. 152-160. [2021-09-01]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2020-04-16). - ^ Wall, Tamara L.; Carr, Lucinda G.; Ehlers, Cindy L. Protective association of genetic variation in alcohol dehydrogenase with alcohol dependence in Native American Mission Indians. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2003, 160 (1): 41–46. PMID 12505800. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.41.
- ^ Wilhelmsen, KC; Ehlers, C. Heritability of substance dependence in a native American population. Psychiatr Genet. 2005, 15 (2): 101–7. PMID 15900224. S2CID 5859834. doi:10.1097/00041444-200506000-00006.
- ^ Brockie, TN; Heinzelmann, M; Gill, J. A Framework to Examine the Role of Epigenetics in Health Disparities among Native Americans. Nurs Res Pract. 2013, 2013: 410395. PMC 3872279
. PMID 24386563. doi:10.1155/2013/410395.
- ^ Holmes, Michael V.; et al. Association between alcohol and cardiovascular disease: Mendelian randomisation analysis based on individual participant data. BMJ. 2014, 349: g4164. PMC 4091648
. PMID 25011450. doi:10.1136/bmj.g4164.
- ^ Women catching up with men in alcohol consumption and its associated harms (PDF). BMJ Open (
新 闻稿). 25 October 2016 [2021-09-01]. (原始 内容 (PDF)存 档于2022-01-31). - ^ 84.0 84.1 Slade T, Chapman C, Swift W, Keyes K, Tonks Z, Teesson M. Birth cohort trends in the global epidemiology of alcohol use and alcohol-related harms in men and women: systematic review and metaregression. BMJ Open. 2016, 6 (10): e011827. PMC 5093369
. PMID 27797998. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011827.
- ^
存 档副本 (PDF). [2021-09-01]. (原始 内容 (PDF)存 档于2022-05-27). - ^
存 档副本 . [2021-09-01]. (原始 内容 存 档于2022-05-20). - ^ Women & Alcohol: The Hidden Risks of Drinking. Helpguide.org. [2013-02-05]. (
原始 内容 存 档于2013-01-03). - ^
存 档副本 . [2021-09-01]. (原始 内容 存 档于2021-08-26). - ^ Cowan, JM Jr; Weathermon, A; McCutcheon, JR; Oliver, RD. Determination of volume of distribution for ethanol in male and female subjects.. J Anal Toxicol. Sep 1996, 20 (5): 287–90. PMID 8872236. doi:10.1093/jat/20.5.287
.
- ^ Graham, K.; Massak, A. Alcohol consumption and the use of antidepressants. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2007, 176 (5): 633–637. PMC 1800314
. PMID 17325328. doi:10.1503/cmaj.060446.
外部 連結 [编辑]
- Massive Study Finds Alcohol Is a Leading Contributor to Death And Disease Worldwide (页面
存 档备份,存 于互联网档案 馆)
|