Names of the Qing dynasty
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg/220px-2014_Manchu_Forbidden_City_Daqing_Gate_01.jpg)
The Qing dynasty (English: /tʃɪŋ/) was an imperial Chinese dynasty ruled by the Aisin Gioro clan of Manchu ethnicity. Officially known as the Great Qing, the dynastic empire was also widely known in English as China and the Chinese Empire both during its existence, especially internationally, and after the fall of the dynasty.
Earlier names
[edit]Later Jin | |||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||
Traditional Chinese | |||||||
Simplified Chinese | |||||||
Literal meaning | Later Gold State | ||||||
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Manchu name | |||||||
Manchu script | ![]() | ||||||
Romanization | Amaga Aisin Gurun |
In 1616 Nurhaci declared himself the "Bright Khan" of the Later Jin state (Chinese:
Origin of the name Qing
[edit]Great Qing | |||||||||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | |||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | |||||||||||||
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Manchu name | |||||||||||||
Manchu script | ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ | ||||||||||||
Romanization | Daicing Gurun |
The name Great Qing first appeared in 1636. Since there was no official explanation from the Qing government about the origin of the name, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng (lit. "clear" or "pure"). The name may have been selected in reaction to the name of the Ming dynasty (
The name China for the Qing
[edit]Central State | |||||||||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | |||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | |||||||||||||
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Manchu name | |||||||||||||
Manchu script | ![]() | ||||||||||||
Romanization | Dulimbai Gurun |
After conquering China proper, the Manchus commonly called their state Zhongguo (Chinese:
When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu-language memorial.[10][11] The Manchu-language version of the Convention of Kyakhta (1768), a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits, referred to people from the Qing as "people from the Central Kingdom" (Dulimbai gurun i niyalma, i.e. "Chinese people" in Manchu).[12] The Qing dynasty created the first Chinese nationality law in 1909, which defined a Chinese national (Chinese:
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg/220px-Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg)
The Qing became widely known internationally in English as "China"[16] or the "Chinese Empire",[17] with China being the standard English translation of Zhongguo or Dulimbai Gurun. They were commonly used in international communications and treaties in addition to English-language mass media and newspapers etc. during the Qing. The Qing also established legations and consulates known as the "Chinese Legation", "Imperial Consulate of China", "Imperial Chinese Consulate (General)" or similar names in various countries with diplomatic relations, such as in the United Kingdom (or British Empire) and the United States. Both English and Chinese terms such as "China" and "Zhongguo" were frequently used by Qing consulates and legations there to refer to the Qing state during their diplomatic correspondences with foreign states.[18] The English name "China" was also used domestically by the Qing, such as in its officially released stamps since Qing set up a modern postal system in 1878. The postal stamps (known as
By the early 20th century, various textbooks with the names "Chinese geography" (
List of names in English
[edit]Alternative names in English
[edit]- China
- As a general term for the country. Applied to the Qing dynasty since the early Qing period.
- Chinese Empire
- As a general term for the imperial state. Applied to the Qing dynasty since the early Qing period.
- Central State, or Middle Kingdom
- Translation of Chinese:
中 國 , as a general term for the country. Applied to the Qing dynasty since the early Qing period. - Qing Empire,[23] Ching Empire, or Ch'ing Empire
- Mostly used when specifically referring to the empire. The three spellings (Qing, Ching, Ch'ing) are various romanizations for the same sound (English: /tʃɪŋ/).
- Empire of the Great Qing[24]
- Translation of Chinese:
大 清 帝 國 . - Great Qing[25]
- Translation of Chinese:
大 清 , the "official name" in Chinese. - Great Qing state[25]
- Translation of Chinese:
大 清 國 or Manchu:ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ - Manchu dynasty[26]
- Used by some westerners, similar to the name "Mongol dynasty" for the Yuan dynasty. Sometimes written as "Manchu Dynasty of China".[27]
- Manchu empire[28]
- Used by some westerners (including some New Qing History scholars). Alternatively (and historically) rendered as "Manchoo empire"[29] or "Mantchoo empire"[30] in the 19th century. Also written as "Manchu empire of China".[31] Additional names such as "Manchu Qing dynasty" or "Manchu Qing empire" are used for emphasizing the Manchuness of the Qing dynasty.
Historical names or romanizations officially used during the Qing dynasty in English
[edit]- Ta Ching
- The transliteration of Chinese:
大 清 as appeared in the banknotes of the Ta Ching Government Bank during the late Qing dynasty, based off of the Wade-Giles romanisation Ta4-ch'ing1. - Tai Ching Ti Kuo[32]
- The transliteration of Chinese:
大 清 帝 國 as appeared in the Great Qing Copper Coin during the late Qing dynasty, based off of the Wade-Giles romanisation Ta4-ch'ing1-ti4-kuo2. - Ta Tsing Empire[33][34]
- Appeared in certain treaties in English (signed with the United States) during the late Qing dynasty, using a transliteration based off of the Postal romanisation system for the Chinese part.
- China[35][36][33]
- Appeared in most treaties, official documents, postal stamps etc.
- Chinese Empire[36]
- Appeared in international treaties in English.
- Empire of China[33]
- Appeared in certain treaties in English.
Other (unofficial) historical names in English
[edit]- Cathay
- An alternative name for China as appeared in some English-language publications. The term was used in Marco Polo's book on his travels in the 13th century (during the Yuan dynasty), and it took a while for most Europeans to be convinced that Cathay referred to China or North China. This English term was sometimes used, although increasingly only in a poetic sense, until the 19th century, when it was completely replaced by "China".
- Celestial Empire
- The translation of Chinese:
天 朝 (a name for China) as appeared in North American and Australian mass media in the 19th century, in reference to the status of the Emperor of China as the Son of Heaven in the Sinosphere. - Flowery Kingdom[37]
- The (literal) translation of Chinese:
華 國 [38][39] as appeared in certain English publications in the 19th century. Also translated from Chinese:中 華 國 [40] as "Middle Flowery Kingdom",[41] "Central Flowery Kingdom",[42] or "Central Flowery State"[43] during the period. Some have since argued that the translation "flowery" from Chinese:華 might be incorrect.[44] - Tartar Chinese Empire[45]
- Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century. Also rendered as "Chinese-Tartar empire"[46] or simply "Chinese empire".[47]
- Tartar Chinese dynasty[48]
- Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century, or simply "Tartar dynasty (of China)"[49] or "Chinese dynasty".[50]
- Manchu Tartar dynasty[51]
- Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century. Also rendered as "Manchoo Tartar dynasty",[52]"Mantchoo Tartar dynasty",[53] "Tartar-Manchu dynasty",[54] "Tartar-Mantchoo dynasty",[55] or simply "Manchu dynasty",[56] "Manchoo dynasty"[57] or "Mantchoo dynasty".[58]
- Tsing dynasty[59]
- Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century, using a transliteration based off of the Postal romanisation system. Sometimes rendered as "Ching dynasty" or "Ch'ing dynasty", based off of the Wade-Giles romanisation for
清 , Ch'ing1.[60] - Ta-tsing dynasty[61]
- Appeared in some English publications in the 19th century, using a transliteration based off of the Postal romanisation system. Also referred to as the "Tai-tsing dynasty",[62] "Great Tsing dynasty",[63] or as the "Ta Ching dynasty" or "Ta Ch'ing dynasty", from the Wade-Giles romanisation of
大 清 , Ta4-ch'ing1.[64] - Great Pure dynasty[65]
- Appeared in certain English publications in the 19th century, with "Great Pure" being a translation of the Chinese:
大 清 .
Native language names within the Qing dynasty and contexts
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png/500px-%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png/400px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png)
The Qing dynasty was founded by the Manchu people, a Tungusic people who conquered the Ming dynasty, and by the 18th century it had extended its control into Inner Asia. During the Qing period languages like Chinese, Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Turki (Uyghur) were often used in the Qing realm.
The Qing dynasty was established in Chinese as "Da Qing" (
Apart from Zhongguo, the Qing court routinely used other terms as well in referring to its state in Chinese, such as guochao (
The Manchu name for the state was ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ (Daicing Gurun). While the Manchu term ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ (Daicing) sounds like a phonetic rendering of Chinese Dà Qīng or Dai Ching, may in fact have been derived from a Mongolian word "ᠳᠠᠢᠢᠴᠢᠨ, дайчин" (daicin) that means "warrior". Daicing Gurun may therefore have meant "warrior state", a pun that was only intelligible to Manchu and Mongol people. In the later part of the dynasty, however, even the Manchus themselves had forgotten this possible meaning.[69] Similar to in the Chinese language, Dulimbai Gurun (the Manchu term for "Zhongguo" or "China") is used alongside Daicing Gurun to refer to the Qing dynasty during the Qing. From a Manchu perspective, the concept of "China" (Chinese: Zhongguo; Manchu: Dulimbai Gurun) embraced the entire empire, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet.[70]
In the Mongolian language, the state was usually known as ᠴᠢᠨ
ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (Чин Улс or Chin uls, i.e. "Qing state") or ᠶᠡᠬᠡ
ᠴᠢᠨ
ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (Их Чин Улс or Dai Chin uls, i.e. "Great Qing state"), along with other variation terms for the empire like "man-u Dai Chin (uls)" ("Our Great Qing [state]"), "Manj (Chin) uls" (Manchu [Qing] State), "the state of our Manchu Emperor", or "Emperor's state", which were traditionally used by some Mongol subjects under the Qing.[71] On the other hand, unlike in Chinese and Manchu languages, the counterpart in Mongolian language for the name "Zhongguo" or "Dulimbai Gurun" (China) did not appear to be commonly used among Mongol writers in such sense during the Qing period. The traditional Mongolian name for China is ᠬᠢᠲᠠᠳ (Хятад or Khyatad), which only refers to the areas of native (Han) Chinese.[71] Whereas the counterpart for the name "Zhongguo" or "Dulimbai Gurun" in Mongolian appeared as ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠦ
ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (Dumdadu ulus or initially Dumdadu gürün, literally "central state"), which was used by the Qing government (such as the Lifan Yuan, Treaty of Kiakhta in 1727[72] and late Qing textbooks) to refer to the whole empire, including usages like "the Mongolian Kalun of China" (ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ
ᠤᠯᠤᠰ
ᠤᠨ
ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ
ᠬᠠᠷᠠᠭᠤᠯ, dumdadu ulus un mong
In the Tibetan language, the Qing dynasty is known as ཆིང་རྒྱལ་རབས། (Ching rgyal rabs), and the Qing emperors were referred to as the Emperor of China (or "Chinese Emperor", in Tibetan: རྒྱ་ནག་གོང་མ་, rgya nag gong ma) and "the Great Emperor" (or "Great Emperor Manjushri", in Tibetan: འཇམ་དབྱངས་གོང་མ་ཆེན་པོ, vjam dbyangs gong ma chen po) during the Qing era.[74][75] For example, in the Treaty of Thapathali of 1856 both Tibetans and Nepalese agreed to "regard the Chinese Emperor as heretofore with respect, in accordance with what has been written".[76][77][78] The traditional Tibetan term for "China", རྒྱ་ནག་ (rgya nag, literally "vast black") was commonly used among Tibetans at the time, which generally referred to the areas of Han Chinese and Manchus in the east, and the term itself did not indicate any specific connection between Tibet and China (proper),[71] even though Tibet was subordinated to the Qing dynasty since the 18th century. However, the counterpart for the name "Zhongguo" or "Dulimbai Gurun" (i.e. "China" in Chinese and Manchu languages) did appear in the Tibetan language as ཡུལ་དབུས། (yul dbus, literally "central land") which was used by Qing rulers like Qianlong Emperor in for example the Tibetan translation of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra he compiled in 1763 and the Tibetan-language inscription of his 1792 article The Discourse of Lama to refer to China (in the same sense as the Chinese term Zhongguo).[79][80]
In the Uyghur language, the Qing dynasty is known as چىڭ سۇلالىسى (Ching sulalisi), and the Qing emperors were referred to as the "Chinese khagan" (Khāqān-i Chīn, "Khagan of China") during the Qing era, where "khāqān" is a Persianized form of the traditional title used by the Turkic peoples to refer to a ruler (similar to Mongolian "Khagan", sometimes also rendered as "Khan"), and Chīn is a traditional Turco-Persian word for China (or the people from the Chinese heartland) and was used by the Turki subjects in Xinjiang (now known as the Uyghurs) to refer to the country or area ruled by the Qing emperors during the period.[81] The terms Khiṭāy (a traditional Turki name for China) and Bijīn (Beijing) were sometimes also used by the Turki subjects to refer to the Qing dynasty (or China in general) at that time.[82] The name "Chinese khagan" (Khāqān-i Chīn) referring to the Emperor of China as a symbol of power[83] appeared in medieval Persian literature works like the great 11th-century epic poem Shahnameh which were circulated widely in Xinjiang, and during the Qing dynasty the Turkic Muslim subjects in Xinjiang (and surrounding Muslim khanates like the Khanate of Kokand) associated the Qing rulers with this name and commonly referred to the Qing emperors as such.[84]
There are also derogatory names in some languages (mostly in Chinese and Mongolian) for the Qing, such as Mǎn Qīng (
Names in other languages
[edit]Apart from the English name of "China" or the "Chinese Empire", it is also known in similar names in other western languages such as Chine in French, Китай in Russian, and Sinici Imperii in Latin, which are the standard translations for "China" or "Chinese Empire" in these languages. For example, in the Sino-Russian Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, the first international treaty signed by the Qing, the term "Китайский" meaning "Chinese" was used to refer to the Qing side in the Russian version of the treaty,[87] and the term "Imperium Sinicum" meaning "Chinese Empire" was used to refer to the Qing empire in the Latin version of the treaty.[88] Sometimes the names for "Great Qing" also appeared in such treaties. For example, the term "Imperii Tai-tscim" meaning "Empire of the Great Qing" appeared in the first paragraph of the Latin version of the Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) along with "Sinenses" appearing in the body of the treaty meaning "Chinese".[89] In the Qing treaties of the 19th-20th centuries with all European states (other than Russia), only variations of "China" and "Chinese Empire" were indicated.[71] In Japanese-language version of some treaties during the Qing dynasty, the Kanji for the Qing state (
See also
[edit]References
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下関 条約
Works cited
[edit]- Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2012). Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979205-4.
- Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1997). The Manchus. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-55786-560-1.
- Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804746847.
- Elliott, Mark C.; Chia, Ning (2004). "The Qing hunt at Mulan". In Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Forêt, Philippe; et al. (eds.). New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde. Routledge. ISBN 9780415320061.
- Zhao, Gang (2006). "Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century" (PDF). Modern China. 32 (1): 3–30. doi:10.1177/0097700405282349. JSTOR 20062627. S2CID 144587815. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-03-25.
- Shao, Dan (2009). "Chinese by Definition: Nationality Law, Jus Sanguinis, and State Succession, 1909–1980". Twentieth-Century China. 35 (1): 4–28. doi:10.1353/tcc.0.0019. S2CID 201771890.