Emperor Dezong of Tang (27 May 742[2] – 25 February 805),[3] personal name Li Kuo, was an emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty and the oldest son of Emperor Daizong. His reign of 26 years was the third longest in the Tang dynasty (surpassed only by Emperor Xuanzong and Emperor Gaozong). Emperor Dezong started out as a diligent and frugal emperor and he tried to reform the governmental finances by introducing new tax laws. His attempts to destroy the powerful regional warlords and the subsequent mismanagement of those campaigns, however, resulted in a number of rebellions that nearly destroyed him and the Tang dynasty. After those events, he dealt cautiously with the regional governors, causing warlordism to become unchecked, and his trust of eunuchs caused the eunuchs' power to rise greatly. He was also known for his paranoia about officials' wielding power, and late in his reign, he did not grant much authority to his chancellors.
Emperor Dezong of Tang | |||||||||||||||||
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Emperor of the Tang dynasty | |||||||||||||||||
Reign | June 12, 779[1] – February 25, 805 | ||||||||||||||||
Predecessor | Emperor Daizong | ||||||||||||||||
Successor | Emperor Shunzong | ||||||||||||||||
Born | May 27, 742[2] | ||||||||||||||||
Died | February 25, 805[3] | (aged 62)||||||||||||||||
Burial | Chong Mausoleum ( | ||||||||||||||||
Consorts | Empress Zhaode (died 786) | ||||||||||||||||
Issue | See § Family | ||||||||||||||||
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House | Li | ||||||||||||||||
Dynasty | Tang | ||||||||||||||||
Father | Emperor Daizong | ||||||||||||||||
Mother | Empress Ruizhen |
Tang Dezong | |||||||
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Chinese | |||||||
Literal meaning | "Virtuous Ancestor of the Tang" | ||||||
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Li Kuo | |||||||
Chinese | |||||||
Literal meaning | (personal name) | ||||||
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Background
editLi Kuo was born in 742, during the reign of his great-grandfather Emperor Xuanzong. His father was Li Chu the Prince of Guangping—the oldest son of Emperor Xuanzong's son and crown prince Li Heng, and he was Li Chu's oldest son.[4] His mother was a consort of Li Chu's, Consort Shen. He was born at the eastern palace—i.e., the Crown Prince's palace—at the Tang capital Chang'an. Later that year, he was created the Prince of Fengjie and given the honorific title of Tejin (
After Chang'an was recaptured from Yan forces in 756, Li Chu (whose name was then changed to Li Yu) was made crown prince, and in 762, after Emperor Suzong's death, he became emperor (as Emperor Daizong).[9] Emperor Daizong gave Li Kuo the title of supreme commander of the armed forces and created him the Prince of Lu, a title soon changed to Prince of Yong.[10] He and his staff were sent to rendezvous with Tang and ally Huige forces at Shan Prefecture (陝州, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan), to prepare an attack to recapture the eastern capital Luoyang, which was then serving as the Yan capital under Yan's fourth and final emperor Shi Chaoyi. When Li Kuo met Huige's Dengli Khan Yaoluoge Yidijian (
As crown prince
editIn 764, Li Kuo was made crown prince. Emperor Daizong then tried to transfer his title of Shangshu Ling to Guo Ziyi, but Guo declined on the basis that only Li Kuo had held the title recently, and previously the title had been held by Emperor Taizong. Meanwhile, in 765, a Buddhist nun named Guangcheng (
Li Kuo's activities as crown prince were not much recorded in the official histories—although, in 778, after Emperor Daizong executed the corrupt chancellor Yuan Zai, he stated to his close associate Li Mi that it was Li Kuo who revealed Yuan's corruption. In 779, when Emperor Daizong fell ill, Li Kuo briefly served as regent, and when Emperor Daizong subsequently died, he succeeded Emperor Daizong (as Emperor Dezong).[14]
Early attempts to destroy warlord power (early Jianzhong era)
editAfter Emperor Dezong took the throne, within the span of less than a year, he carried out several actions to set out his policy differences with his father:
- The chancellor Chang Gun, whom Emperor Dezong suspected of being overly powerful, was exiled, replaced with Cui Youfu; subsequently, at Cui's recommendation, Yang Yan was also made chancellor.[14][15]
- Guo Ziyi, who had much military authority, was effectively forced into retirement (albeit with many honorific titles), with his commands divided between Li Huaiguang, Chang Qianguang (
常 謙 光 ), and Hun Jian (渾瑊).[14] - Emperor Dezong had the animals in the imperial menagerie released, had many ladies in waiting sent out of the palace, and ordered that eunuchs serving as imperial messengers not be allowed to receive gifts.[14]
- Cui Ning the military governor (Jiedushi) of Xichuan Circuit (
西川 , headquartered in modern Chengdu, Sichuan), who had governed the circuit for more than a decade and only nominally obeyed imperial authority, was detained (although titularly promoted) at Chang'an, and the imperial government took back control of Xichuan.[15] - At Yang's suggestion, the tax system was reformed—with the intention to decrease the tax burden on the landowners and farmers and bring merchants, who were previously not taxed, into the taxation system—under a new tax law known as the Law of the Two Taxes (
兩 稅法 , Liangshui Fa).[15]
Emperor Dezong further resumed the search for his mother Consort Shen, whom he honored as an empress dowager in absentia. He commissioned officials, as well as Shen clan members, to be in charge of the search, and gave many members of the Shen clan honors. In 781, the searchers mistakenly believed that an adoptive daughter of Gao Lishi, a powerful eunuch during Emperor Xuanzong's reign, was Empress Dowager Shen, and she was taken to Chang'an to be honored as such. However, her brother Gao Chengyue (
Meanwhile, Emperor Dezong, under Yang's proposal, also began to consider campaigns to recapture the western prefectures lost to Tufan during and immediately after the Anshi Rebellion. However, his putting Li Huaiguang, known for being a harsh commander, in charge of the project caused a mutiny of the soldiers at Jingyuan Circuit (涇原, headquartered in modern Pingliang, Gansu) in 780. Emperor Dezong had the Jingyuan mutiny suppressed, to show resolve, but was forced to abandon the plans to act against Tufan.[15]
When Emperor Dezong came to the throne, there were four major circuits that were ruled by their military governors in effectively independent manner from the imperial government—Pinglu (
Emperor Dezong reacted by commissioning Li Xilie the military governor of Huaixi Circuit (淮西, headquartered in modern Zhumadian, Henan) to command the army against Shannan East; Ma Sui, Li Baozhen, and Li Sheng to attack Weibo; and Zhu Tao the acting military governor of Lulong Circuit (
Things quickly turned for the worse, however, after Emperor Dezong angered both Zhu and Wang by not giving them what they believed they deserved—in Zhu's case, control of Chengde's Shen Prefecture (
By this point, Cui had died, and Lu Qi became chancellor along with Yang. Lu soon was able to persuade Emperor Dezong that Yang was intending treason, and Emperor Dezong put Yang to death. With Lu largely in power by himself, it was said that at his inducement, Emperor Dezong became unduly harsh, causing the officials and the people to be disappointed in Emperor Dezong.[16] With the necessity of paying for campaigns on multiple fronts, Emperor Dezong added two new taxes—property taxes for houses (Shuijianjia,
Rebellions of Zhu Ci, Li Huaiguang, and Li Xilie
editOn November 2, 783,[18] soldiers from Jingyuan Circuit, at Chang'an to be deployed to the battlefield to the east, rebelled when they became angry that they were not only not given rewards that they believed they deserved, but were being fed a vegetarian diet, mutinied. They attacked the palace, and Emperor Dezong fled with his family to Xianyang (咸陽, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi), and then to Fengtian (
Zhu Ci personally led an army and put Fengtian under siege for more than a month, and the small city nearly fell. Meanwhile, Li Huaiguang, hearing of what had happened at Chang'an, marched his army from Weibo as quickly as possible toward Fengtian. Zhu, hearing of Li's impending arrival, first attacked Fengtian even more severely but still could not capture it, and with Li arriving, Zhu withdrew back to Chang'an on December 18.[19][20]
However, in the aftermaths of Li's saving him, Emperor Dezong offended Li by refusing to meet him, but instead ordering him to rendezvous with several other generals—Li Sheng (who had also marched toward Fengtian), Li Jianhui (
At Lu Zhi's suggestion, on January 27, 784 (Chinese New Year)[21][20] Emperor Dezong issued a pardon blaming himself for provoking the rebellions and pardoning all of the warlords and their soldiers, with the only exception of Zhu Ci personally, and further exempting the soldiers involved in the campaign against Zhu Ci from taxes. Upon receiving the pardons, Wang Wujun, Tian Yue, and Li Na renounced their princely titles and reclaimed allegiance to Tang; in turn, Emperor Dezong made them military governors of their own circuits. However, Li Xilie reacted by declaring himself the emperor of a new state of Chu, while Zhu Tao headed south, attempting to join Zhu Ci. When Tian refused to join him, he attacked Weibo, but was unable to immediately capture it.[20] With Tian Yue subsequently assassinated and succeeded by his cousin Tian Xu, Zhu Tao initially attempted to persuade Tian Xu to join him, but Tian eventually reentered an alliance with Wang and Li Baozhen and resisted Zhu Tao. Wang and Li Baozhen soon arrived and defeated Zhu Tao, forcing him to flee back to Lulong.[22][23]
Meanwhile, though, Li Huaiguang, disaffected from Emperor Dezong, was in secret negotiations with Zhu Ci (who had changed his state's name to Han by this point) to enter an alliance with Zhu. Zhu promised to honor Li Huaiguang as an elder brother and divide the Guanzhong region with him, with each ruling a state as its emperor. On March 20, Li Huaiguang declared his rebellion and alliance with Zhu.[24] Emperor Dezong fled from Fengtian to Liang Prefecture (
Li Sheng soon prepared for a final attack on Chang'an, and he launched his attack on June 12.[25] On June 20,[26] with Li Sheng having entered the city, Zhu Ci fled toward Tufan. He was soon killed in flight by his own soldiers, ending his state of Han. On August 3,[27] Emperor Dezong returned to Chang'an.[23] When he sent emissaries to persuade Li Huaiguang to again pledge allegiance to him, Li Huaiguang was initially receptive, but when Emperor Dezong's further emissary, the official Kong Chaofu (
Meanwhile, Li Xilie's continued attempts to expand were being repeatedly rebuffed by Tang generals.[23][28] In summer 786, with Li Xilie being ill, his general Chen Xianqi had him poisoned, slaughtered his family, and then resubmitted to Tang authority. (While Chen was soon thereafter himself assassinated by Wu Shaocheng, Wu continued to pledge allegiance to Tang.) Nominally, the realm was again entirely under Emperor Dezong's rule.[28]
Period of strong chancellors Li Mi and Lu Zhi (early Zhenyuan era)
editHowever, by this point, the empire was in deep trouble due to the wars, and Tufan forces, taking advantage of Tang's weakening, were making repeated incursions into Tang territory. Tufan's chancellor Shang Jiezan (
Meanwhile, Shang continued the next stage of his plan, by submitting a peace proposal through Ma. Emperor Dezong believed Shang's good faith and agreed to the treaty, despite Li's warnings. At Shang's request, Emperor Dezong sent Hun to meet with Shang and sign the treaty. On July 8, 787,[29] the day set for the treaty signing, Shang ambushed Hun at the meeting site, intending to capture him, but Hun escaped with emergency aid from Luo Yuanguang and Han Yougui. As Ma was responsible for arranging the peace treaty with Shang, Emperor Dezong recalled him to Chang'an as well and stripped him of his command of Hedong Circuit (
After the disaster, Emperor Dezong recalled Li Mi, who had been serving as the governor (
By this point, however, Emperor Dezong was also extracting frequent tributes from regional governors for his own personal use. Li Mi tried to curb the emperor's hoarding of treasure by instituting an annual stipend for the emperor, which Emperor Dezong initially agreed to. However, even after the stipend was instituted, Emperor Dezong continued to demand tributes from regional governors and ordered that they not let Li Mi become aware of the tributes. When Li Mi still found out, he became depressed over this issue but did not dare to speak again about it.[30]
Li Mi died in 789, and for some time, Li Mi's recommended successor, Dou Can, was the most powerful chancellor at court, but he soon lost Emperor Dezong's favor and was exiled (and eventually ordered to commit suicide).[30][31] Lu Zhi became the main chancellor, and for some time, made ambitious proposals to reform the civil service system and logistics system, and reassert authority over regional governors—whom, by this point, Emperor Dezong was so apprehensive about such that he was not daring to impose governors unless he had explicit agreements from the key military officers of the circuits. (For example, after the death of Liu Xuanzuo (
Middle Zhenyuan era
editIt was said that after Lu Zhi's removal, Emperor Dezong became increasingly distrusting of chancellors. He therefore personally selected all of the officials, but as he could not have actually known all of the candidates for official positions himself, he trusted the recommendations of Pei Yanling (who died in 796) and such other officials that he trusted, including Li Qiyun (
Emperor Dezong also increasingly open to tributes from regional governors, and the regional governors often submitted large amounts of tributes in order to protect their positions and gain favor from the emperor.[32]
Also around this time, powerful eunuchs (starting with Dou Wenchang (竇文
In 799, for reasons lost to history, Wu Shaocheng, still governing Zhangyi Circuit (formerly Huaixi Circuit) at that time, began to pillage the circuits around his. Emperor Dezong ordered the military governors around Zhangyi—including Yu Di the military governor of Shannan East Circuit, Han Hong (Liu Xuanzuo's nephew) the military governor of Xuanwu Circuit, Yi Shen (
Late Zhenyuan era
editMeanwhile, due to victories that Wei Gao and the Nanzhao king Yimouxun (
By this time, Emperor Dezong's oldest son Li Song the Crown Prince had become close to the junior officials Wang Pi and Wang Shuwen, and Wang Pi and Wang Shuwen and their associates were planning To carry out a number of reforms when Li Song would eventually be emperor. The officials who associated with them included Wei Zhiyi and such junior officials as Lu Chun (
In winter 804, however, Li Song suddenly suffered a stroke, causing him to be partially paralyzed and unable to speak. In spring 805, it was said that because of Li Song's illness, Emperor Dezong himself became severely depressed and fell into an illness. He died on February 25, 805,[3] and, while there was some speculation both inside the palace and out as to whether Li Song would actually take the throne due to his severe illness, Li Song did so (as Emperor Shunzong).[33]
Issues during Emperor Dezong's reign
editDezong's reign can be summarized into three categories of mismanagements that began during his reign and would have repercussions for future Tang emperors.
Attempts at eliminating military governors
editThe early part of Dezong's reign can be seen as an attempt to limit the strength of the fanzhen, a situation where regional military governors or jiedushi had sprung up after the An Lushan rebellion, to take control of huge border areas of the empire. These fiefs were a direct challenge to the central administration of the Tang empire as they were granted the power to collect tax, maintain an army and pass on their power hereditarily rather by appointment of the central government. As such these warlords would only be loyal to central government if it served their interest to do so. In early 781, when one of the military governors, Li Baochen, died, out of respect for protocol, Li's son, Li Weiyue requested to the central government that he be appointed the succeeding governor. Dezong seized upon this request as a chance to rid his state of the military governors and declined to grant Li Weiyue the title. This act angered the rest of the military governors who saw Dezong as a threat. In 782, the four strongest military governors banded together and revolted against the central government. In the meantime, an internal military coup albeit a minor one forced Dezong to flee his palace in capital city of Chang'an – the third Tang emperor to do so. As a result, all plans to remove the military governors had to be abandoned. In early 784, in order to restore peace and stability, Dezong decreed that he would not limit their power and accept responsibility for causing the initial revolt. Dezong's humiliating acceptance of defeat was just as toxic to Dezong himself as to the dynasty. Dezong became disenchanted with ever achieving his goals and when he thought it was unattainable, he would not pursue. Dezong's inability to control the fanzhen weakened the centralized power of the Tang dynasty and would contribute to a series of rebellions in the middle of the 9th century and ultimately lead to its downfall early in the 10th century.
Dependence on eunuchs
editDezong witnessed the rise of eunuchs during the reign of his father Emperor Daizong who himself succeeded to the throne as a result of support from eunuchs. Dezong realized the danger of depending too heavily on eunuchs and as a result he kept them at arm's length when he became emperor. Dezong's opinion of these eunuchs changed drastically when in 782 Dezong was driven out of his capital city by revolting military governors and was not able to command the situation. Even his own generals would not heed to his authority. Dezong felt forsaken and during his escape, only a handful of eunuchs namely Dou Wenchang and Huo Xianming were by his side. During this difficult times, Dezong's view of the eunuchs began to take on a different approach. After his return to Chang'an, Dezong greatly rewarded Dou and Huo for their loyalty not least of which were military and government post. In due course, these eunuchs's power became an inalienable part of the Tang government. Some eunuchs in the latter part of the dynasty were so powerful that they alone held the abilities to support or depose any emperors at whim. Dezong's son Tang Shunzong and grandson Tang Xianzong as well as later emperors such as Tang Jingzong and Tang Wenzong were all murdered or deposed by eunuchs.
From frugality to greed
editDezong began his reign by issuing a variety of edicts restricting wasteful government spending. Monetary contribution from local government officials or abroad were discouraged or limited. He also issued edicts that freed hundreds of palace girls in order to reduce palace expenses. These acts were all met with praise however they only lasted the first few years of his reign. A series of unfortunate events which included revolts by military governors forced Dezong to flee Chang'an in 784. During the months in exile, Dezong began to realize the importance of creating wealth and as a result, after Dezong's returned to Chang'an he began to reverse many of the original edicts he set forth. With the aid of eunuchs, Dezong started to amalgamate a large fortune either by extortion or bribery. These in turn led to a negative atmosphere where wealth rather than merit would ultimately bring one power.
Chancellors during reign
edit- Chang Gun (779)
- Li Zhongchen (779–784[34])
- Cui Youfu (779–780)
- Qiao Lin (779)
- Yang Yan (779–781)
- Lu Qi (781–783)
- Zhang Yi (781–782)
- Guan Bo (782–784)
- Xiao Fu (783–784)
- Liu Congyi (783–785)
- Jiang Gongfu (783–784)
- Li Huaiguang (783–784)
- Lu Han (784–786)
- Li Sheng (784–793)
- Hun Jian (784–799)
- Li Mian (784–786)
- Zhang Yanshang (785, 787)
- Ma Sui (785–795)
- Liu Zi (786–787)
- Cui Zao (786)
- Qi Ying (786–787)
- Han Huang (786–787)[35]
- Liu Hun (787)
- Li Mi (787–789)
- Dou Can (789–792)
- Dong Jin (789–793)
- Zhao Jing (792–796)
- Lu Zhi (792–794)
- Jia Dan (793–805)
- Lu Mai (793–797)
- Cui Sun (796–803)
- Zhao Zongru (796–798)
- Zheng Yuqing (798–800)
- Qi Kang (800–803)
- Du You (803–812)
- Gao Ying (803–805)
- Zheng Xunyu (803–805)
Family
editConsorts and Issue:
- Empress Zhaode, of the Wang clan (
昭德 皇后 王 氏 ; d. 786)- Li Song, Shunzong (
順 宗 李 誦/顺宗李 诵; 761–806), first son - Princess Hanzhenmu (
韓 貞 穆 公主 /韦贞穆 公主 ; 762–784), first daughter- Married Wei You (韋宥/韦宥), and had issue (one daughter)
- Li Song, Shunzong (
- Worthy Consort, of the Wei clan (
賢 妃 韋氏/贤妃 韦氏) - Consort Wang, of the Wang clan (
王妃 王 氏 )1 - Gracious Consort, of the Xiao clan (
惠 妃 赵氏) - First Imperial Concubine of the Wang clan (
昭 仪王 氏 ) - Lady of Complete Countenance, of the Wu clan (
充 容 武 氏 ) - Unknown
- Li Chen, Prince Tong (
通 王 李 諶/李 谌; 771–798), third son - Li Liang, Prince Qian (
虔 王 李 諒 /李 谅), fourth son - Li Xiang, Prince Su (肅王
李 詳 /肃王李 详; 779–782), fifth son - Li Qian, Prince Zi (
資 王 李 謙 /资王李 谦; b. 779), sixth son - Li Yin, Prince Dai (
代 王 李 諲/李 𬤇; 779), seventh son - Li Jie, Prince Zhao (
照 王 李 誡/李 诫), ninth son - Li E, Prince Qin (欽王
李 諤/钦王李 谔), tenth son - Li Xian, Prince Zhen (
珍 王 李 諴/李 咸; 801–833), 11th son - Princess Weixianmu (
魏 宪穆公主 )- Married Wang Shiping (
王 士 平 ), a son of Wang Wujun, in 786
- Married Wang Shiping (
- Princess Zhengzhuangmu (
鄭 莊 穆 公主 /郑庄穆 公主 ; d. 799)- Married Zhang Maozong (
張 茂 宗 ), a son of Zhang Xiaozhong, in 787
- Married Zhang Maozong (
- Princess Linzhen (臨真
公主 /临真公主 )- Married Xue Zhao of Hedong (
河東 薛釗/河 东 薛钊)
- Married Xue Zhao of Hedong (
- Princess Yongyang (
永 陽 公主 /永 阳公主 ), tenth daughter- Married Cui Yin of Qinghe (
清河 崔 𬤇)
- Married Cui Yin of Qinghe (
- Princess Puning (
普 寧 公主 /普 宁公主 ), 11th daughter - Princess Yanxiangmu (
燕 襄 穆 公主 ; d. 808)- Married Tun Bagha Tarkhan (
長壽 天 親 可 汗 /长寿天 亲可汗 ; d. 789) in 788
- Married Tun Bagha Tarkhan (
- Princess Yichuan (
義 川 公主 /义川公主 ) - Princess Yidu (
宜 都 公主 ; 772–803), fourth daughter- Married Liu Yu of Hedong (
河 东柳 昱; 760–804) in 796
- Married Liu Yu of Hedong (
- Princess Jinping (
晉平 公主 /晋平 公主 )
- Li Chen, Prince Tong (
Ancestry
editEmperor Ruizong of Tang (662–716) | |||||||||||||||||||
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (685–762) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Zhaocheng (d. 693) | |||||||||||||||||||
Emperor Suzong of Tang (711–762) | |||||||||||||||||||
Yang Zhiqing | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Yuanxian (699–729) | |||||||||||||||||||
Emperor Daizong of Tang (726–779) | |||||||||||||||||||
Wu Shenquan | |||||||||||||||||||
Wu Linggui | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Zhangjing (713–730) | |||||||||||||||||||
Lady Li | |||||||||||||||||||
Emperor Dezong of Tang (742–805) | |||||||||||||||||||
Shen Shiheng | |||||||||||||||||||
Shen Lin | |||||||||||||||||||
Shen Yizhi | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Ruizhen | |||||||||||||||||||
Religious views
editDezong was one of a number of Tang dynasty emperors who gave money to monks and churches part of the Chinese Church of the East tradition.[36] He believed in various ideas from Church of the East Christianity and Buddhism about the afterlife and Tian.[36]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ According to Li Kuo's biography in the Old Book of Tang, he assumed the throne on the guihai day in the 5th month of the 14th year of the Dali era of Tang Daizong's reign. This date corresponds to 12 June 779 in the Julian calendar.(「
大 历十 四 年 五 月 ...。癸 亥 ,即位 于太极殿」) Old Book of Tang, vol. 12. - ^ a b According to Li Kuo's biography in the Old Book of Tang, he was born on the guisi day in the 4th month of the 1st year of the Tianbao era of Tang Xuanzong's reign. This date corresponds to 27 May 742 in the Julian calendar.(「
天宝 元年 四 月 癸巳 ,生 于长安 大内 之 东宫。」) Old Book of Tang, vol. 12. - ^ a b c According to Li Kuo's biography in the Old Book of Tang, he died on the guisi day in the 1st month of the 21st year of the Zhenyuan era of his reign, at the age of 64 (by East Asian reckoning). This date corresponds to 25 Feb 805 in the Gregorian calendar.「(贞元)
二 十 一 年 春 正月 ...癸巳 ,....。是 日 ,上 崩 于会宁殿,享 寿 六 十 四 。」) Old Book of Tang, vol. 13. - ^ (
代 宗 长子) Old Book of Tang, vol. 12. - ^ (其年
十 二 月 ,拜 特 进,封 奉 节郡王 。) Old Book of Tang, vol. 12. - ^ Old Book of Tang, vol. 11.
- ^ Old Book of Tang, vol. 52.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 218.
- ^ a b Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 222.
- ^ (
以上 为天下兵 马元帅,改 封 鲁王。八 月 ,改 封 雍王。) Old Book of Tang, vol. 12. - ^ Bo Yang, Outlines of the History of the Chinese (
中國人 史 綱 ), vol. 2, p. 554. - ^ (以元帅功
拜 尚 书令,...,与 郭 子 仪等八人图形凌烟阁。) Old Book of Tang, vol.12 - ^ a b Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 223.
- ^ a b c d Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 225.
- ^ a b c d e f Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 226.
- ^ a b c d Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 227.
- ^ a b Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 228.
- ^ Volume 228 of the Zizhi Tongjian recorded that the mutiny took place on the dingwei day of the 10th month of the 4th year of the Jianzhong era of Tang Dezong's reign. This date corresponds to 2 Nov 783 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Volume 229 of the Zizhi Tongjian recorded that the withdrawal took place on the guisi day of the 11th month of the 4th year of the Jianzhong era of Tang Dezong's reign. This date corresponds to 18 Dec 783 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ a b c d Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 229.
- ^ Volume 229 of the Zizhi Tongjian recorded that the pardon was issued on the guiyou day of the 1st month of the 1st year of the Xingyuan era of Tang Dezong's reign. This date corresponds to 27 Jan 784 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ a b Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 230.
- ^ a b c d Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 231.
- ^ Volume 230 of the Zizhi Tongjian recorded that the declaration took place on the bingyin day of the 2nd month of the 1st year of the Xingyuan era of Tang Dezong's reign. This date corresponds to 20 Mar 784 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Volume 231 of the Zizhi Tongjian recorded that the attack took place on the gengyin day of the 5th month of the 1st year of the Xingyuan era of Tang Dezong's reign. This date corresponds to 12 Jun 784 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Volume 231 of the Zizhi Tongjian recorded that Li Sheng entered Chang'an on the wuxu day of the 5th month of the 1st year of the Xingyuan era of Tang Dezong's reign. This date corresponds to 20 Jun 784 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Volume 231 of the Zizhi Tongjian recorded that Dezong returned to Chang'an on the renwu day of the 7th month of the 1st year of the Xingyuan era of Tang Dezong's reign. This date corresponds to 3 Aug 784 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ a b c d e f Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 232.
- ^ Volume 232 of the Zizhi Tongjian recorded that the date set for the treaty signing was the xinwei day of the leap month of the 3rd year of the Zhenyuan era of Tang Dezong's reign. This corresponds to 8 July 787 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ a b c d Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 233.
- ^ a b Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 234.
- ^ a b c d e f g Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 235.
- ^ a b c Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 236.
- ^ Li Zhongchen joined Zhu Ci's state of Qin in 783 and served as a chancellor for Qin, but the table of chancellors in the New Book of Tang continued to regard Li Zhongchen as a chancellor until he was captured and executed by Tang forces in 784. See New Book of Tang, vol. 62.
- ^ Han Huang was not listed in the table of chancellors, perhaps because he was still then military governor (Jiedushi) of Zhenhai Circuit (鎮海, headquartered in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu) and therefore arguably only an honorary chancellor, but he was listed in the table of chancellors' family trees, in the New Book of Tang. Compare New Book of Tang, vol. 62, with New Book of Tang, vol. 73.1.
- ^ a b Li, Dun J. (1965). The Ageless Chinese: A History. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 373.
- Encyclopædia Britannica[permanent dead link]
任 士 英 (2005)正 說 唐 朝 二 十 一 帝 Taipei (台北 ):聯 經 . ISBN 978-957-08-2943-3- Old Book of Tang, vols. 12, 13.
- New Book of Tang, vol. 7.
- Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 222, 223, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236.