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'''''Interpretatio romana''''' is comparative discourse in reference to [[Religion in ancient Rome|ancient Roman religion]] and [[Roman mythology|myth]], as in the formation of a distinctive [[Gallo-Roman religion]]. Both the Romans and the Gauls reinterpreted Gallic religious traditions in relation to Roman models, particularly [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Imperial cult]].
'''''Interpretatio romana''''' is comparative discourse in reference to [[Religion in ancient Rome|ancient Roman religion]] and [[Roman mythology|myth]], as in the formation of a distinctive [[Gallo-Roman religion]]. Both the Romans and the Gauls reinterpreted Gallic religious traditions in relation to Roman models, particularly [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Imperial cult]].


[[Jan Assmann]] considers the [[polythesism|polytheistic]] approach to internationalizing gods as a form of "intercultural translation":
[[Jan Assmann]] considers the [[polytheism |polytheistic]] approach to internationalizing gods as a form of "intercultural translation":
<blockquote>The great achievement of polytheism is the articulation of a common semantic universe. …The meaning of a deity is his or her specific character as it unfolded in myths, hymns, rites, and so on. This character makes a deity comparable to other deities with similar traits. The similarity of gods makes their names mutually translatable. … The practice of translating the names of the gods created a concept of similarity and produced the idea or conviction that the gods are international.<ref>''Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism'' (Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 44–54 (quotation p. 45), as cited by Smith, ''God in Translation,'' p. 39.</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>The great achievement of polytheism is the articulation of a common semantic universe. …The meaning of a deity is his or her specific character as it unfolded in myths, hymns, rites, and so on. This character makes a deity comparable to other deities with similar traits. The similarity of gods makes their names mutually translatable. … The practice of translating the names of the gods created a concept of similarity and produced the idea or conviction that the gods are international.<ref>''Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism'' (Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 44–54 (quotation p. 45), as cited by Smith, ''God in Translation,'' p. 39.</ref></blockquote>


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[[Image:Sulis Minerva head Bath.jpg|thumb|Gilt bronze head from the cult statue of Sulis Minerva from the [[Roman Baths (Bath)|Temple at Bath]]]]
[[Image:Sulis Minerva head Bath.jpg|thumb|Gilt bronze head from the cult statue of Sulis Minerva from the [[Roman Baths (Bath)|Temple at Bath]]]]


Some information about the deities of the ancient [[Gauls]] (the [[continental Celts]]), who left no written literature other than inscriptions, is preserved by Greco-Roman sources under the names of Greek and Latin equivalents. A large number of [[Gaulish]] [[theonym]]s or cult titles are preserved, for instance, [[Mars (mythology)#Provincial epithets|in association with Mars]]. As with some Greek and Roman divine counterparts, the perceived similarities between a Gallic and a Roman or Greek deity may reflect a common Indo-European origin.<ref>John T. Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.</ref> [[Lugh]] was identified with [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], [[Nodens]] with Mars as healer and protector, [[Sulis]] with [[Minerva]]. In some cases, however, a Gallic deity is given an ''interpretatio romana'' by means of more than one god, varying among literary texts or inscriptions. Since the religions of the [[Greco-Roman world]] were not dogmatic, and [[polytheism]] lent itself to multiplicity, the concept of "deity" was often expansive, permitting multiple and even contradictory functions within a single divinity, and overlapping powers and functions among the diverse figures of each pantheon. These tendencies extended to cross-cultural identifications.<ref>Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in ''Celtic Culture'', pp. 974–975; Assmann, ''Moses the Egyptian'', p. 45.</ref>
Some information about the deities of the ancient [[Gauls]] (the [[continental Celts]]), who left no written literature other than inscriptions, is preserved by Greco-Roman sources under the names of Greek and Latin equivalents. A large number of [[Gaulish]] [[theonym]]s or cult titles are preserved, for instance, [[Mars (mythology)#Provincial epithets|in association with Mars]]. As with some Greek and Roman divine counterparts, the perceived similarities between a Gallic and a Roman or Greek deity may reflect a common Indo-European origin.<ref>John T. Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.</ref> [[Lugh]] was identified with [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], [[Nodens]] with Mars as healer and protector, [[Sulis]] with [[Minerva]]. In some cases, however, a Gallic deity is given an ''interpretatio romana'' by means of more than one god, varying among literary texts or inscriptions. Since the religions of the [[Greco-Roman world]] were not dogmatic, and polytheism lent itself to multiplicity, the concept of "deity" was often expansive, permitting multiple and even contradictory functions within a single divinity, and overlapping powers and functions among the diverse figures of each pantheon. These tendencies extended to cross-cultural identifications.<ref>Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in ''Celtic Culture'', pp. 974–975; Assmann, ''Moses the Egyptian'', p. 45.</ref>


In the Eastern empire, the [[Teshub|Anatolian storm god]] with his [[labrys|double-headed axe]] became [[Jupiter Dolichenus]], a favorite cult figure among soldiers. Roman scholars such as [[Varro]] attempted to "translate" the one god of the Jews into Roman terms as [[Caelus]] or [[Jupiter Optimus Maximus]]. Some Greco-Roman authors seem to have understood the Jewish invocation of [[Yahweh]] [[Sabaoth]] as [[Sabazius]].
In the Eastern empire, the [[Teshub|Anatolian storm god]] with his [[labrys|double-headed axe]] became [[Jupiter Dolichenus]], a favorite cult figure among soldiers. Roman scholars such as [[Varro]] attempted to "translate" the one god of the Jews into Roman terms as [[Caelus]] or [[Jupiter Optimus Maximus]]. Some Greco-Roman authors seem to have understood the Jewish invocation of [[Yahweh]] [[Sabaoth]] as [[Sabazius]].
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File:Roman - Deity or Genius of the Eastern Provinces - Walters 541330.jpg|Syncretized figure from the Eastern provinces, perhaps a [[Genius (mythology)|Genius]] (1st century BC–1st century AD)
File:Roman - Deity or Genius of the Eastern Provinces - Walters 541330.jpg|Syncretized figure from the Eastern provinces, perhaps a [[Genius (mythology)|Genius]] (1st century BC–1st century AD)
File:Isis Musei Capitolini MC744.jpg|Isis holding [[sistrum]] and [[oinochoe]] (Roman marble, reign of [[Hadrian]])
File:Isis Musei Capitolini MC744.jpg|Isis holding [[sistrum]] and [[oinochoe]] (Roman marble, reign of [[Hadrian]])
File:Isis Sarapis Harpocrates Dionysos Louvre Ma3128.jpg|Isis, Serapis, the child [[Harpocrates]] and Dionysos (relief from [[Africa province|Roman Africa]], late 2nd century AD)
File:Isis Sarapis Harpocrates Dionysos Louvre Ma3128.jpg|Isis, [[Serapis]], the child [[Harpocrates]] and Dionysos (relief from [[Africa province|Roman Africa]], late 2nd century AD)
File:ZeusSerapisOhrmazdWithWorshipperBactria3rdCenturyCE.jpg|Worshipper before Zeus-Serapis-[[Ohrmazd]] (Bactria, 3rd century AD)
File:ZeusSerapisOhrmazdWithWorshipperBactria3rdCenturyCE.jpg|Worshipper before Zeus-Serapis-[[Ohrmazd]] (Bactria, 3rd century AD)
</gallery>
</gallery>


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Syncretism]]
* [[Hellenistic religion]]
* [[Mystery religions]]
* [[Mystery religions]]
* [[Serapis]]
* [[Aion (deity)]]
* [[Aion (deity)]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European religion]] - a hypothetical common ancestor of various European religious traditions


==Notes==
==Notes==

Revision as of 09:18, 8 January 2013

The goddess Isis (seated right) welcoming the Greek heroine Io into Egypt, as depicted in a Roman wall painting from Pompeii

Interpretatio graeca (Latin, "Greek translation" or "interpretation by means of Greek [models]") is a discourse[1] in which ancient Greek religious concepts and practices, deities, and myths are used to interpret or attempt to understand the mythology and religion of other cultures. It is thus a comparative methodology that looks for equivalencies and shared characteristics. The phrase may describe Greek efforts to explain others' beliefs and myths, as when Herodotus describes Egyptian religion in terms of perceived Greek analogues, or when Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch document Roman cults, temples, and practices under the names of equivalent Greek deities. Interpretatio graeca may also describe non-Greeks' interpretation of their own belief systems by comparison or assimilation with Greek models, as when Romans adapt Greek myths and iconography under the names of their own gods.

Interpretatio romana is comparative discourse in reference to ancient Roman religion and myth, as in the formation of a distinctive Gallo-Roman religion. Both the Romans and the Gauls reinterpreted Gallic religious traditions in relation to Roman models, particularly Imperial cult.

Jan Assmann considers the polytheistic approach to internationalizing gods as a form of "intercultural translation":

The great achievement of polytheism is the articulation of a common semantic universe. …The meaning of a deity is his or her specific character as it unfolded in myths, hymns, rites, and so on. This character makes a deity comparable to other deities with similar traits. The similarity of gods makes their names mutually translatable. … The practice of translating the names of the gods created a concept of similarity and produced the idea or conviction that the gods are international.[2]

Pliny the Elder expressed the "translatability" of deities as "different names to different peoples" (nomina alia aliis gentibus).[3] This capacity made possible the religious syncretism of the Hellenistic era and the pre-Christian Roman Empire.

Examples

Herodotus was one of the earliest authors to engage in this form of interpretation. In his observations regarding the Egyptians, he establishes Greco-Egyptian equivalents that endured into the Hellenistic era, including Amon/Zeus, Osiris/Dionysus, and Ptah/Hephaestus.

Some pairs of Greek and Roman gods, such as Zeus and Jupiter, are thought to derive from a common Indo-European archetype (Dyeus as the supreme sky god), and thus exhibit shared functions by nature. Others required more expansive theological and poetic efforts: though both Ares and Mars are war gods, Ares was a relatively minor figure in Greek religious practice and deprecated by the poets, while Mars was a father of the Roman people and a central figure of archaic Roman religion.

Some deities dating to Rome's oldest religious stratum, such as Janus and Terminus, had no Greek equivalent. Other Greek divine figures, most notably Apollo, were adopted directly into Roman culture, but underwent a distinctly Roman development, as when Augustus made Apollo one of his patron deities. In the early period, Etruscan culture played an intermediary role in transmitting Greek myth and religion to the Romans, as evidenced in the linguistic transformation of Greek Heracles to Etruscan Her[e]cle to Roman Hercules.

Interpretatio romana

The phrase interpretatio romana was first used by the Imperial-era historian Tacitus in the Germania.[4] Tacitus reports that in a sacred grove of the Nahanarvali, "a priest adorned as a woman presides, but they commemorate gods who in Roman terms (interpretatione romana) are Castor and Pollux.[5] Elsewhere,[6] he identifies the principal god of the Germans as Mercury, perhaps referring to Odin.[7]

Gilt bronze head from the cult statue of Sulis Minerva from the Temple at Bath

Some information about the deities of the ancient Gauls (the continental Celts), who left no written literature other than inscriptions, is preserved by Greco-Roman sources under the names of Greek and Latin equivalents. A large number of Gaulish theonyms or cult titles are preserved, for instance, in association with Mars. As with some Greek and Roman divine counterparts, the perceived similarities between a Gallic and a Roman or Greek deity may reflect a common Indo-European origin.[8] Lugh was identified with Mercury, Nodens with Mars as healer and protector, Sulis with Minerva. In some cases, however, a Gallic deity is given an interpretatio romana by means of more than one god, varying among literary texts or inscriptions. Since the religions of the Greco-Roman world were not dogmatic, and polytheism lent itself to multiplicity, the concept of "deity" was often expansive, permitting multiple and even contradictory functions within a single divinity, and overlapping powers and functions among the diverse figures of each pantheon. These tendencies extended to cross-cultural identifications.[9]

In the Eastern empire, the Anatolian storm god with his double-headed axe became Jupiter Dolichenus, a favorite cult figure among soldiers. Roman scholars such as Varro attempted to "translate" the one god of the Jews into Roman terms as Caelus or Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Some Greco-Roman authors seem to have understood the Jewish invocation of Yahweh Sabaoth as Sabazius.

Interpretatio germanica

Interpretatio germanica is the practice by the Germanic peoples of identifying Roman gods with the names of Germanic deities. According to Rudolf Simek, this occurred around the 1st century of the Christian era, when both cultures came into closer contact. Some evidence for interpretatio germanica exists in the Germanic translations of the Roman names for the days of the week:

In the Romance languages that derive from Latin, some days of the week still preserve the names of the original Roman deities, as does English "Saturday," Saturn's day.

Simek emphasizes the paucity of evidence and notes that comparison with Roman gods is insufficient to reconstruct ancient Germanic gods and equate them definitively with those of later Norse mythology.[11]

Greco-Roman equivalents

The following is a list of Greek, Roman, and Etruscan equivalents, based on usage among the ancients themselves, supported by the analyses of modern scholars. "Equivalent" should not be taken to mean "the same god". For instance, when the myths or even cult practices of a particular Roman deity were influenced by the Greek or Etruscan tradition, the deity may have had an independent origin and a tradition that is culturally distinctive.

Greek Greek (Romanized) Roman Roman (Anglicized) Etruscan Functions
Ἄδωνις Adonis Atunis lord, master, or patron
Ἀμφιτρίτη Amphitrite Salacia The third surrounding [the sea][12]
Ἀνάγκη Ananke Necessitas force, constraint, necessity
Ἄνεμοι Anemoi Venti Winds
Ἀφροδίτη Aphrodite Venus Turan love or sexual desire
Ἀπόλλων (Apollōn) /
Φふぁいοおみくろんῖβος (Phoibos) 		Apollo / Phoebus Apollo / Phoebus Aplu Phoebus means shining one
Ἄρης Ares Mars Maris war
Ἄρτεμις Artemis Diana ' Artume Heavenly or Divine; 'hunting, the hunt
Ἀσκληπιός (Asklēpios) Asclepius Aesculapius / Vejovis
Αθήνη Athena / Athene Minerva Menrva the goddess of war, civilization, wisdom, strength, strategy, crafts, justice and skill in Greek mythology
Ἄτροπος Atropos Morta Leinth without turn; Death
Βορέας Boreas Aquilo / Aquilon Andas North Wind or Devouring One
Χάριτες (Kharites) Charites Gratiae Graces
Χάρων (Kharōn) Charon Charon Charun fierce brightness
Χλωρίς (Khlōris) Chloris Flora Chloris means greenish-yellow, pale green, pale, pallid or fresh. Flora means "flower."
Κλωθώ (Klōthō) Clotho Nona Spin or Twiddle
Κρόνος (Kronos) Cronus Saturnus Saturn God of agriculture and harvest
Κυβέλη (Kubelē) Cybele Magna Mater Great Mother
Δημήτηρ Demeter Ceres Cels Earth Mother
Διόνυσος (Dionusos) /
Βάκχος (Bakkhos) 		Dionysus / Bacchus Liber / Bacchus Fufluns
Ἐνυώ Enyo Bellona Warlike
Ἠώς Eos Aurora / Matuta Thesan Dawn
Ἐρινύες Erinyes Dirae / Furiae Furies Furies
Ἔρις Eris Discordia Strife
Ἔρως Eros Cupido / Amor Cupid love
Εいぷしろんὖρος (Euros) Eurus Vulturnus
Γがんまαあるふぁῖαあるふぁ Gaia / Gaea Terra / Tellus Cel mother earth
Γαλινθιᾶς Galanthis / Galinthias Galinthis Weasel
Ἁιδης (Hadēs) /
Πλούτων (Plouton) 		Hades / Pluto Dis Pater / Pluto / Orcus Aita The Unseen; Wealth
Ἥβべーたηいーた Hebe Iuventas Juventas
Ἑκάτη (Hekatē) Hecate Trivia she who has power far off [13]
Ἥλιος Helios Sol Aplu Sun
Ἥφαιστος (Hḗphaistos) Hephaestus Vulcanus Vulcan Sethlans metalwork, forges
Ἥρろーαあるふぁ Hera Iuno Juno Uni marriage, family
Ἡρακλής (Hēraklē̂s) Heracles Hercules Hercle Glory of Hera
Ἑρろーμみゅーῆς Hermes Mercurius Mercury Turms Mercurius related to Latin merx (merchandise), mercari (to trade), and merces (wages); Mercury was among other attributes the patron of commerce
Ἕσπερος (Hesperos) Hesperus Vesper evening, supper, evening star, west[14]
Ἕστία Hestia Vesta hearth, fireplace
Ὑγίεια Hygeia Salus Health
Ὕπνος Hypnos Somnus Sleep
Εいぷしろんἰρήνη (Eirēnē) Irene Pax Peace
Ianus Janus Ani Archway, indecision
Λάχεσις (Lakhesis) Lachesis Decima Disposer of Lots, luck
Λητώ Leto Latona
Μみゅーοおみくろんῖρろーαあるふぁιいおた (Moirai) Moirai / Moerae Parcae / Fatae Fates Apportioners
Μみゅーοおみくろんῦσしぐまαあるふぁιいおた (Mousai) Musae Camenae Muses
Νίκη Nike Victoria Victory
Νότος (Notos) Notus Auster
Νύξ (Nuks) Nyx Nox Night
Ὀδυσσεύς Odysseus Ulixes / Ulysses Uthuze
Παλαίμων (Palaimōn) Palaemon Portunes
Πάν Pan Faunus nature, the wild
Silvanus Selvans of the woods
Περσεφόνη Persephone Proserpina Proserpine to emerge
Φήμη Pheme Fama Fame/Rumor
Φωσφόρος (Phōsphoros) Phosphorus Lucifer Light Bearer
Ποσειδῶνにゅー Poseidon Neptune Nethuns sea, water, horses
Πρίαπος (Priapos) Priapus Mutinus Mutunus
Ῥέα Rhea Magna Mater / Ops
(See Cybele, above)
Σάτυροι (Saturoi) / Πάνες Satyrs / Panes
(See Pan, above) 		Fauni Fauns
Σελήνη Selene Luna Moon
Σεμέλη Semele Stimula Semla
Θάνατος Thanatos Mors Leinth, Charun Death
Θέμις Themis Iustitia Justice law of nature
Τύχη (Tukhe) Tyche Fortuna Fortune Nortia Luck; Fortune
Ουρανός (Ouranos) Uranus Caelus Sky
Vertumnus Voltumna
Ζέφυρος (Zephuros) Zephyrus / Zephyr Favonius the West Wind; Favorable
Ζεύς Zeus Iuppiter / Iovis Jupiter / Jove Tinia Sky Father

In art

Examples of deities depicted in syncretic compositions by means of interpretatio graeca or romana:

  • Jupiter Ammon (terracotta of Hellenistic style, 1st century AD)
    Jupiter Ammon (terracotta of Hellenistic style, 1st century AD)
  • Syncretized figure from the Eastern provinces, perhaps a Genius (1st century BC–1st century AD)
    Syncretized figure from the Eastern provinces, perhaps a Genius (1st century BC–1st century AD)
  • Isis holding sistrum and oinochoe (Roman marble, reign of Hadrian)
    Isis holding sistrum and oinochoe (Roman marble, reign of Hadrian)
  • Isis, Serapis, the child Harpocrates and Dionysos (relief from Roman Africa, late 2nd century AD)
    Isis, Serapis, the child Harpocrates and Dionysos (relief from Roman Africa, late 2nd century AD)
  • Worshipper before Zeus-Serapis-Ohrmazd (Bactria, 3rd century AD)
    Worshipper before Zeus-Serapis-Ohrmazd (Bactria, 3rd century AD)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Characterized as "discourse" by Mark S. Smith, God in Translation: Deities in Cross-Cultural Discourse in the Biblical World (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2008, 2010), p. 246.
  2. ^ Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism (Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 44–54 (quotation p. 45), as cited by Smith, God in Translation, p. 39.
  3. ^ Pliny, Natural History 2.5.15.
  4. ^ Tacitus, Germania 43.
  5. ^ Praesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu, sed deos interpretatione romana Castorem Pollucemque memorant."
  6. ^ Tacitus, Germania 9.
  7. ^ Robert Leo Odom, Sunday in Roman Paganism (TEACH 2003 ISBN 978-1-57258242-2), pp. 251-252
  8. ^ John T. Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.
  9. ^ Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture, pp. 974–975; Assmann, Moses the Egyptian, p. 45.
  10. ^ In other contexts, Thor is more often identified by means of interpretatio romana with Hercules.
  11. ^ Simek (2007:74).
  12. ^ Robert Graves, The Greek Myths 1960.
  13. ^ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2331691&redirect=true
  14. ^ Collins Latin Dictionary plus Grammar, p. 231. ISBN 0-06-053690-X)

References

  • Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 0-85991-513-1
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