Chinese characters: Difference between revisions
Line 868: | Line 868: | ||
<!--- Note: Academic link EXPLAINING Chinese characters welcome. Links toward translation services, learning product will be deleted.---> |
<!--- Note: Academic link EXPLAINING Chinese characters welcome. Links toward translation services, learning product will be deleted.---> |
||
;History and construction of Chinese characters |
;History and construction of Chinese characters |
||
* [http://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/chinese-chess/ Chinese Chess] |
|||
* [http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/visible/index.html History of Chinese writing] |
* [http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/visible/index.html History of Chinese writing] |
||
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chinese_evolution.htm Evolution of Chinese Characters] |
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chinese_evolution.htm Evolution of Chinese Characters] |
Revision as of 07:38, 19 March 2012
Chinese | |
---|---|
Script type | |
Time period | Bronze Age China to present |
Direction | Left-to-right, vertical right-to-left |
Languages | Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese |
Related scripts | |
Parent systems | Oracle Bone Script
|
ISO 15924 | |
ISO 15924 | Hani (500), Han (Hanzi, Kanji, Hanja) |
Unicode | |
Unicode alias | Han |
Chinese characters | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 汉字 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese alphabet | hán tự (Sino-Viet.) chữ Nho (native tongue) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Zhuang name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Zhuang | 倱[1] Sawgun | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hangul | 한자 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanja | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kanji | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hiragana | かんじ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Chinese characters are logograms used in the writing of Chinese (in which case they may be called hanzi;[2] 汉字/
Chinese characters number in the tens of thousands, though most of these are minor graphic variants only encountered in historical texts. Studies carried out in China have shown that functional literacy requires a knowledge of between three and four thousand characters.[6]
In Chinese orthography, the characters are largely morphosyllabic, each corresponding to a spoken syllable with a distinct meaning.[7] However, the majority of Chinese words today consist of two or more characters.[8] About 10% of native words have two syllables without separate meanings, but they are nonetheless written with two characters. Some characters, generally ligatures, represent polysyllabic words or even phrases, though this is the exception and is generally informal.[9]
Cognates in the various varieties of Chinese are generally written with the same character. They typically have similar meanings, but often quite different pronunciations. In other languages, most significantly today in Japanese, characters are used to represent native words, ignoring the Chinese pronunciation, to represent Chinese loanwords, and as purely phonetic elements based on their pronunciation in the historical variety of Chinese they were acquired from. These foreign adaptations of Chinese pronunciation are known as Sinoxenic pronunciations, and have been useful in the reconstruction of Ancient Chinese.
History
Precursors
In recent decades, inscriptions have been found on Neolithic pottery and on bones at a variety of locations in China, including Banpo and Hualouzi near Xi'an. These simple, often geometric marks are similar to some of the earliest known Chinese characters, potentially indicating that the history of Chinese writing extends back over six millennia.
However, because these marks occur singly, without any implied context, and are made crudely and simply, Qiu Xigui concluded that "we do not have any basis for stating that these constituted writing nor is there reason to conclude that they were ancestral to Shang Dynasty Chinese characters."[10] Nonetheless, isolated graphs and pictures continue to be found periodically, frequently accompanied by media reports that push back the purported beginnings of Chinese writing by thousands of years. For example, at Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 pictorial cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC were discovered, leading to headlines such as "Chinese writing '8,000 years old.'"[11] Similarly, archaeologists reported finding a few inscribed symbols on tortoise shells at the neolithic site of Jiahu in Henan dated to around 6600–6200 BC, leading to headlines of "'Earliest writing' which was found in China".[12]
In a comment released to the BBC, Professor David Keightley urged caution in the latter instance, pointing to the lack of any direct connection to the Shang culture, considering that the Shang Dynasty arose several millennia later. However, in the same BBC article, a supporting argument was provided by Dr. Garman Harbottle of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York City, who collaborated with a team of archaeologists at the University of Science and Technology of China in Anhui in the discovery. Dr. Harbottle pointed to the persistence of sign use at different sites along the Yellow River throughout the neolithic and up to the Shang period, when a complex writing system appears.[12]
One interesting group of sites comprises the Dawenkou sites (2800–2500 BC), only a millennium earlier than the early Shang sites and plausibly positioned as ancestral to the Shang. There, a few inscribed pottery and jade pieces have been found,[13] one of which combines pictorial elements (a sun, moon or clouds, and a fire or a mountain[citation needed]) in a stack which brings to mind the compounding of elements in Chinese characters. Major scholars are divided in their interpretation of such inscribed symbols. Some, such as Yu Xingwu,[14] Tang Lan,[15] and Li Xueqin[16] have identified these with specific Chinese characters. Others such as Wang Ningsheng[17] interpret them as pictorial symbols such as clan insignia, rather than writing. But in the view of Wang Ningsheng, "True writing begins when it represents sounds and consists of symbols that are able to record language. The few isolated figures found on pottery still cannot substantiate this point."[18]
Legendary origins
According to legend, Chinese characters were invented by Cangjie (c. 2650 BC), a bureaucrat under the legendary Yellow Emperor. There are quite a few variations of the legend. One of them tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu in modern Shanxi when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called zì (
Oracle bone script
The oldest Chinese inscriptions that may be classified as writing are the oracle-bone inscriptions (
Bronze Age: parallel script forms and gradual evolution
The traditional picture of an orderly series of scripts, each one invented suddenly and then completely displacing the previous one, has been conclusively demonstrated to be fiction by the archaeological finds and scholarly research of the later 20th and early 21st centuries.[22] Gradual evolution and the coexistence of two or more scripts was more often the case. As early as the Shang Dynasty, oracle-bone script coexisted as a simplified form alongside the normal script of bamboo books (preserved in typical bronze inscriptions), as well as the extra-elaborate pictorial forms (often clan emblems) found on many bronzes.
Based on studies of these bronze inscriptions, it is clear that, from the Shang Dynasty writing to that of the Western Zhou and early Eastern Zhou, the mainstream script evolved in a slow, unbroken fashion, until assuming the form that is now known as seal script in the late Eastern Zhou in the state of Qin, without any clear line of division.[23][24] Meanwhile other scripts had evolved, especially in the eastern and southern areas during the late Zhou Dynasty, including regional forms, such as the guwen (“ancient forms”) of the eastern Warring States preserved in the Han Dynasty character dictionary Shuowen Jiezi as variant forms, as well as decorative forms such as bird and insect scripts.
Unification: seal script, vulgar writing and proto-clerical
Part of a series on |
Calligraphy |
---|
Seal script, which had evolved slowly in the state of Qin during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, became standardized and adopted as the formal script for all of China in the Qin Dynasty (leading to a popular misconception that it was invented at that time), and was still widely used for decorative engraving and seals (name chops, or signets) in the Han Dynasty period. However, despite the Qin script standardization, more than one script remained in use at the time. For example, a little-known, rectilinear and roughly executed kind of common (vulgar) writing had for centuries coexisted with the more formal seal script in the Qin state, and the popularity of this vulgar writing grew as the use of writing itself became more widespread.[25] By the Warring States period, an immature form of clerical script called “early clerical” or “proto-clerical” had already developed in the state of Qin[26] based upon this vulgar writing, and with influence from seal script as well.[27] The coexistence of the three scripts – small seal, vulgar and proto-clerical, with the latter evolving gradually in the Qin to early Han dynasties into clerical script – runs counter to the traditional belief that the Qin Dynasty had one script only, and that clerical script was suddenly invented in the early Han Dynasty from the small seal script.
Han Dynasty
Proto-clerical evolving to clerical
Proto-clerical script, which had emerged by the time of the Warring States period from vulgar Qin writing, matured gradually, and by the early Western Han period, it was little different from that of the Qin.[28] Recently-discovered bamboo slips show the script becoming mature clerical script by the middle-to-late reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han,[29] who ruled from 141 BC to 87 BC.
Clerical and clerical cursive
Contrary to the popular belief of there being only one script per period, there were in fact multiple scripts in use during the Han period.[30] Although mature clerical script, also called
Neo-clerical
Around the mid-Eastern Han period,[34] a simplified and easier-to-write form of clerical script appeared, which Qiú (2000, p. 113 & 139) terms "neo-clerical" (
Semi-cursive
By the late Eastern Han period, an early form of semi-cursive script appeared,[37] developing out of a cursively-written form of neo-clerical script[38] and simple cursive.[39] This semi-cursive script was traditionally attributed to Liu Desheng ca. 147–188 AD,[36][40] although such attributions refer to early masters of a script rather than to their actual inventors, since the scripts generally evolved into being over time. Qiu gives examples of early semi-cursive script, showing that it had popular origins rather than being purely Liu’s invention.[41]
Written styles
There are numerous styles, or scripts, in which Chinese characters can be written, deriving from various calligraphic and historical models. Most of these originated in China and are now common, with minor variations, in all countries where Chinese characters are used.
The Shang Dynasty oracle bone script and the Zhou Dynasty scripts found on Chinese bronze inscriptions are no longer used; the oldest script that is still in use today is the Seal Script (篆书 /
Scripts that are still used regularly are the "Clerical Script" (隶书 /
The cursive script (
There also exist scripts created outside China, such as the Japanese Edomoji styles; these have tended to remain restricted to their countries of origin, rather than spreading to other countries like the Chinese scripts.
Wei to Jin period
Regular script
Regular script has been attributed to Zhong Yao, of the Eastern Han to Cao Wei period (ca. 151–230 AD), who has been called the “father of regular script”. However, some scholars[42] postulate that one person alone could not have developed a new script which was universally adopted, but could only have been a contributor to its gradual formation. The earliest surviving pieces written in regular script are copies of Yao's works, including at least one copied by Wang Xizhi. This new script, which is the dominant modern Chinese script, developed out of a neatly-written form of early semi-cursive, with addition of the pause (顿 /
Modern cursive
Meanwhile, modern cursive script slowly emerged out of the clerical cursive (zhāngcǎo) script during the Cao Wei to Jin period, under the influence of both semi-cursive and the newly emerged regular script.[45] Cursive was formalized in the hands of a few master calligraphers, the most famous and influential of which was Wang Xizhi.[46]
Dominance and maturation of regular script
It was not until the Southern and Northern Dynasties that regular script rose to dominant status.[47] During that period, regular script continued evolving stylistically, reaching full maturity in the early Tang Dynasty. Some call the writing of the early Tang calligrapher Ouyang Xun (557–641) the first mature regular script. After this point, although developments in the art of calligraphy and in character simplification still lay ahead, there were no more major stages of evolution for the mainstream script.
Modern history
Although most of the simplified Chinese characters in use today are the result of the works moderated by the government of the People's Republic of China in the 1950s and 60s, character simplification predates the republic's formation in 1949. One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lufei Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China. In the 1930s and 1940s, discussions on character simplification took place within the Kuomintang government, and a large number of Chinese intellectuals and writers have long maintained that character simplification would help boost literacy in China. In many world languages, literacy has been promoted as a justification for spelling reforms. The People's Republic of China issued its first round of official character simplifications in two documents, the first in 1956 and the second in 1964. In the 1950s and 1960s, while confusion about simplified characters was still rampant, transitional characters that mixed simplified parts with yet-to-be simplified parts of characters together appeared briefly, then disappeared.
"Han unification" was an effort by the authors of Unicode and the Universal Character Set to map multiple character sets of the so-called CJK languages (Chinese/Japanese/Korean) into a single set of unified characters and was completed for the purposes of Unicode in 1991 (Unicode 1.0).
Formation of characters
Category | Percentage of characters (approximation) |
---|---|
Phono-semantic compounds | 82% |
Ideogrammic compounds | 13% |
Pictograms | 4% |
Ideograms | Few (less than 1%) |
Transformed cognates | Few |
Rebus | Few |
The earliest known Chinese texts, in the Oracle bone script, display a fully developed writing system, with little difference in functionality from modern characters. It is assumed that the early stages of the development of characters were dominated by pictograms, which were the objects depicted, and ideograms, in which meaning was expressed iconically. The demands of writing full language, including words which had no easy pictographic or iconic representation, forced an expansion of this system, presumably through use of rebus.
The presumed methods of forming characters were first classified c. 100 AD by the Chinese linguist Xu Shen (
Four percent of Chinese characters are derived directly from individual pictograms, though in most cases the resemblance to an object is no longer clear. Others were derived as ideograms; as compound ideograms, where two ideograms are combined to give a third reading; and as rebuses. But most characters were devised as phono-semantic compounds, with one element to indicate the general category of meaning and the other to suggest the pronunciation. Again, in many cases the suggested sound is no longer accurate. All today are logograms, and are not actually used pictographically or ideographically.
Pictograms
象形 字 xiàngxíngzì
Pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include
There is no concrete number for the proportion of modern characters that are pictographic in nature; however, Xu Shen (c. 100 AD) estimated that 4% of characters fell into this category.
Ideograms
指事 字 zhǐshìzì
Also called simple indicatives or simple ideographs, these characters either modify existing pictographs iconically, or are direct iconic illustrations. For instance, by modifying
Direct examples include
Ideogrammic compounds
会意 字 /會意 字 huìyìzì
Translated literally as logical aggregates or associative compounds, these characters symbolically combine pictograms or ideograms to create a third character. For instance, combining
Xu Shen estimated that 13% of characters fall into this category.
Some scholars flatly reject the existence of this category, opining that failure of modern attempts to identify a phonetic in a compound is due simply to our not looking at ancient "secondary readings", which were lost over time.[51] For example, the character
These arguments notwithstanding, there are some characters that do appear to genuinely belong to this category. It is doubtful that secondary readings can be found for many cases, and the characters
Further, some modern characters have certainly been coined by this method, such as some chemical names such as 鉑 (platinum, "white metal"), created in 19th century China – see chemical elements in East Asian languages – and the Japanese-coined (kokuji) Chinese characters for SI units for some (but not all) SI units, such as
Rebus
假借 字 jiǎjièzì
Also called borrowings or phonetic loan characters, this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar or identical pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as
Rebus was pivotal in the history of writing in China insofar as it represented the stage at which logographic writing could become purely phonetic (phonographic). Chinese characters used purely for their sound values are attested in the Chun Qiu
Phono-semantic compounds
形声 字 /形聲 字 xíngshēngzì
By far the most numerous characters are the phono-semantic compounds, also called semantic-phonetic compounds or pictophonetic compounds. These characters are composed of two parts: one of a limited set of characters called 'radicals', which are often graphically simplified and which suggests the general meaning of the character, and an existing character pronounced approximately as the new target word.
Examples are
Xu Shen (c. 100 AD) placed approximately 82% of characters into this category, while in the Kangxi Dictionary (1716 AD) the number is closer to 90%, due to the extremely productive use of this technique to extend the Chinese vocabulary.[citation needed]
This method is still sometimes used to form new characters, for example 钚 bù ("plutonium") is the metal radical
In occasional cases, a 2-character compound word will share a radical across both characters (use the same radical on both characters), with the radical serving to disambiguate the entire word. A notable example is biwa (a Chinese lute, also a fruit, the loquat, of similar shape) – originally written as 批把 with the hand radical, referring to the down and up strokes when playing this instrument, which was then changed to
Transformed cognates
- 转注
字 /轉注 字 zhuǎnzhùzì
Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance,
Polysyllabic words and polysyllabic characters
Most Chinese morphemes (not necessarily words) are monosyllabic and are written with a single character. However, a number of basic morphemes are disyllabic, and this dates back to Classical Chinese. Excluding foreign loan words, these are typically words for plants and small animals. Usually the two characters, which may have no independent meaning apart from poetic abbreviation for the disyllabic word, will each have a phonetic for that syllable and share a common radical. Examples are
With the fusion of the diminutive -er suffix in Mandarin, monosyllabic words may even be written with two characters, as in
On the other hand, compound words and set phrases may be conflated into single characters. Common examples are 圕 túshūguǎn 'library', a contraction of
Variants
Just as Roman letters have a characteristic shape (lower-case letters mostly occupying the x-height, with ascenders or descenders on some letters), Chinese characters occupy a more or less square area in which the components of every character are written to fit in order to maintain a uniform size and shape, especially with small printed characters in Ming and sans-serif styles. Because of this, beginners often practise writing on squared graph paper, and the Chinese sometimes use the term "Square-Block Characters" (
Despite standardization, some nonstandard forms are commonly used, especially in handwriting. In older sources, even authoritative ones, variant characters are commonplace. For example, in the preface to the Imperial Dictionary, there are 30 variant characters which are not found in the dictionary itself.[59] A few of these are reproduced at right.
Regional standards
The nature of Chinese characters makes it very easy to produce allographs for many characters, and there have been many efforts at orthographical standardization throughout history. In recent times, the widespread usage of the characters in several different nations has prevented any particular system becoming universally adopted and the standard form of many Chinese characters thus varies in different regions.
Mainland China adopted simplified Chinese characters in 1956. They are also used in Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Postwar Japan has used its own less drastically simplified characters, Shinjitai, since 1946, while South Korea has limited its use of Chinese characters, and Vietnam and North Korea have completely abolished their use in favour of Vietnamese alphabet and Hangul, respectively.
The standard character forms of each region are described in:
- The List of Frequently Used Characters in Modern Chinese for Mainland China.
- The List of Forms of Frequently Used Characters for Hong Kong.
- The Standard Form of National Characters for Taiwan.
- The list of Jōyō kanji for Japan.
- The Kangxi Dictionary (de facto) for Korea.
In addition to strictness in character size and shape, Chinese characters are written with very precise rules. The most important rules regard the strokes employed, stroke placement, and stroke order. Just as each region that uses Chinese characters has standardized character forms, each also has standardized stroke orders, with each standard being different. Most characters can be written with just one correct stroke order, though some words also have many valid stroke orders, which may occasionally result in different stroke counts. Some characters are also written with different stroke orders due to character simplification.
Typography and design
There are three major families of typefaces used in Chinese typography:
Ming and sans-serif are the most popular in body text and are based on regular script for Chinese characters akin to Western serif and sans-serif typefaces, respectively. Regular script typefaces emulate regular script.
The Song typeface (
Sans-serif typefaces, called black typeface (
Regular script typefaces are also commonly used, but not as common as Ming or sans-serif typefaces for body text. Regular script typefaces are often used to teach students Chinese characters, and often aim to match the standard forms of the region where they are meant to be used. Most typefaces in the Song Dynasty were regular script typefaces which resembled a particular person's handwriting (e.g. the handwriting of Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, or Liu Gongquan), while most modern regular script typefaces tend toward anonymity and regularity.
Reform
Chinese character simplification is the overall reduction of the number of strokes in the regular script of a set of Chinese characters.
Simplification in China
The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.
Although most often associated with the People's Republic of China, character simplification predates the 1949 communist victory. Caoshu, cursive written text, almost always includes character simplification, and simplified forms have always existed in print, albeit not for the most formal works. In the 1930s and 1940s, discussions on character simplification took place within the Kuomintang government, and a large number of Chinese intellectuals and writers have long maintained that character simplification would help boost literacy in China. Indeed, this desire by the Kuomintang to simplify the Chinese writing system (inherited and implemented by the Communist Party of China) also nursed aspirations of some for the adoption of a phonetic script based on the Latin script, and spawned such inventions as the Gwoyeu Romatzyh.
The People's Republic of China issued its first round of official character simplifications in two documents, the first in 1956 and the second in 1964. A second round of character simplifications (known as erjian, or "second round simplified characters") was promulgated in 1977. It was poorly received, and in 1986 the authorities rescinded the second round completely, while making six revisions to the 1964 list, including the restoration of three traditional characters that had been simplified: 叠 dié,
The majority of simplified characters are drawn from conventional abbreviated forms, or ancient standard forms.[60] For example, the orthodox character
Japanese kanji
In the years after World War II, the Japanese government also instituted a series of orthographic reforms. Some characters were given simplified forms called shinjitai
Southeast Asian Chinese communities
Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification. These resulted in some simplifications that differed from those used in mainland China. It ultimately adopted the reforms of the People's Republic of China in their entirety as official, and has implemented them in the educational system. However, unlike in China, personal names may still be registered in traditional characters.
Malaysia started teaching a set of simplified characters at schools in 1981, which were also completely identical to the Mainland China simplifications. Chinese newspapers in Malaysia are published in either set of characters, typically with the headlines in traditional Chinese while the body is in simplified Chinese.
Although in both countries the use of simplified characters is universal among the younger Chinese generation, a large majority of the older Chinese literate generation still use the traditional characters. Chinese shop signs are also generally written in traditional characters.
In the Philippines, most Chinese schools and businesses still use the traditional characters and bopomofo, owing from influence from the Republic of China (Taiwan) due to the shared Hokkien heritage. Recently, however, more Chinese schools now use both simplified characters and pinyin. Since most readers of Chinese newspapers in the Philippines belong to the older generation, they are still published largely using traditional characters.
Comparisons of traditional Chinese, simplified Chinese, and Japanese
The following is a comparison of Chinese characters in the Standard Form of National Characters, a common traditional Chinese standard used in Taiwan; the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo, the standard for Mainland Chinese simplified Chinese characters; and the jōyō kanji, the standard for Japanese kanji. "Simplified" refers to having significant differences from the Taiwan standard, not necessarily being a newly created character or a newly performed substitution. The characters in the Hong Kong standard and the Kangxi Dictionary are also known as "Traditional," but are not shown.
Traditional Chinese | Simplified Chinese | Japanese | meaning | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Simplified in mainland China, not Japan | 电 | electricity | ||
买 | buy | |||
开 | open | |||
东 | east | |||
车 | car, vehicle | |||
红 | red (crimson in Japanese) | |||
无 | nothing | |||
鸟 | bird | |||
热 | hot | |||
时 | time | |||
语 | spoken language | |||
Simplified in Japan, not Mainland China (In some cases this represents the adoption of different variants as standard) |
Buddha | |||
favour | ||||
moral, virtue | ||||
kowtow, pray to, worship | ||||
black | ||||
冰 | 冰 | ice | ||
rabbit | ||||
妒 | 妒 | 妬 | jealousy | |
Simplified in Mainland China and Japan, but differently |
聽 | 听 | 聴 | listen |
证 | certificate, proof | |||
龙 | dragon | |||
卖 | sell | |||
龟 | turtle, tortoise | |||
岁 | age, year | |||
艺 | art, arts | |||
战 | fight, war | |||
关 | to close, relationship | |||
铁 | iron, metal | |||
图 | picture, diagram | |||
团 | group, regiment | |||
转 | turn | |||
广 | wide, broad | |||
恶 | bad, evil | |||
丰 | abundant | |||
脑 | brain | |||
杂 | miscellaneous | |||
压 | pressure, compression | |||
雞 | 鸡 | chicken | ||
价 | price | |||
乐 | fun | |||
气 | air | |||
厅 | hall, office | |||
Simplified in Mainland China and Japan in the same way |
sound, voice | |||
learn | ||||
body | ||||
dot, point | ||||
貓 | cat | |||
insect | ||||
old | ||||
can (verb), meeting | ||||
ten-thousand | ||||
thief | ||||
treasure | ||||
country | ||||
medicine |
- ^ This table is merely a brief sample, not a complete listing.
Dictionaries
Dozens of indexing schemes have been created for arranging Chinese characters in Chinese dictionaries. The great majority of these schemes have appeared in only a single dictionary; only one such system has achieved truly widespread use. This is the system of radicals.
Chinese character dictionaries often allow users to locate entries in several different ways. Many Chinese, Japanese, and Korean dictionaries of Chinese characters list characters in radical order: characters are grouped together by radical, and radicals containing fewer strokes come before radicals containing more strokes. Under each radical, characters are listed by their total number of strokes. It is often also possible to search for characters by sound, using pinyin (in Chinese dictionaries), zhuyin (in Taiwanese dictionaries), kana (in Japanese dictionaries) or hangul (in Korean dictionaries). Most dictionaries also allow searches by total number of strokes, and individual dictionaries often allow other search methods as well.
For instance, to look up the character where the sound is not known, e.g.,
Another dictionary system is the four corner method, where characters are classified according to the "shape" of each of the four corners.
Most modern Chinese dictionaries and Chinese dictionaries sold to English speakers use the traditional radical-based character index in a section at the front, while the main body of the dictionary arranges the main character entries alphabetically according to their pinyin spelling. To find a character with unknown sound using one of these dictionaries, the reader finds the radical and stroke number of the character, as before, and locates the character in the radical index. The character's entry will have the character's pronunciation in pinyin written down; the reader then turns to the main dictionary section and looks up the pinyin spelling alphabetically.
Other languages
Besides Chinese/Sinitic languages, Japanese/Japonic languages, Korean, and Vietnamese language (chữ Nôm), a number of smaller Asian languages have been written or continue to be written using Hanzi, characters modified from Hanzi, or Hanzi in combination with native characters. They include:
- Bai language
- Dong language
- Iu Mien language
- Jurchen language, Jurchen script
- Khitan language, Khitan script
- Miao languages
- Nakhi (Naxi) language (Geba script)
- Tangut language,[61][62] Tangut script
- Zhuang language (using Zhuang logograms, or "sawndip")
- Sui script
In addition, the Yi script is similar to Hanzi, but is not known to be directly related to it.
Along with Persian and Arabic, Chinese characters were also used as a foreign script to write the Mongolian language, where characters were used to phonetically transcribe Mongolian sounds. Before the 13th century and the establishment of the Mongolian script, foreign scripts such as Chinese had to be used to write the Mongolian language. Most notably, the only surviving copies of The Secret History of the Mongols were written in such a manner; the Chinese characters
Historical spread
The Vietnamese hán tự were first used in Vietnam during the millennium of Chinese rule starting in 111 BC, while adaptation for the vernacular chữ Nôm script (based on Chinese characters) emerged around the 13th century AD.
The oldest known record of the Sawndip characters used by the Zhuang, a non-Han peoples from what is today known as Guangxi, is from a stele dating from 689, which predates the earliest example of Vietnamese chữ Nôm. The Zhuang word for characters used in the Chinese language is "sawgun"[1] (saw meaning character, and cognate to Chinese
The Chinese script spread to Korea together with Buddhism from the 7th century (hanja). The Japanese kanji were adopted for recording the Japanese language from the 8th century AD.
Representation of foreign languages
The following is an extract from "ON THE BEST METHOD OF REPRESENTING THE UNASPIRATED MUTES OF THE MANDARIN DIALECT" By Rev. John Gulick. "The inhabitants of other Asiatic nations, who have had occasion to represent the words of their several languages by Chinese characters, have as a rule used unaspirated characters for the sounds, g, d, b. The Muslims from Arabia and Persia have followed this method... The Mongols, Manchu, and Japanese also constantly select unaspirated characters to represent the sounds g, d, b, and j of their languages. These surrounding Asiatic nations, in writing Chinese words in their own alphabets, have uniformly used g, d, b, &e., to represent the unaspirated sounds."[63]
Chinese characters were also used to phonetically transcribe the Manchu language in the Qing dynasty.
Number of Chinese characters
The total number of Chinese characters from past to present remains unknowable because new ones are developed all the time – for instance, brands may create new characters when none of the existing ones allow for the intended meaning. Chinese characters are theoretically an open set and anyone can create new characters as they see fit. Such inventions are however often excluded from officialized character sets.[64] The number of entries in major Chinese dictionaries is the best means of estimating the historical growth of character inventory.
Year | Name of dictionary | Number of characters |
---|---|---|
100 | Shuowen Jiezi | 9,353 |
543? | Yupian | 12,158 |
601 | Qieyun | 16,917 |
997 | Longkan Shoujian | 26,430 |
1011 | Guangyun | 26,194 |
1039 | Jiyun | 53,525 |
1615 | Zihui | 33,179 |
1675 | Zhengzitong | 33,440 |
1716 | Kangxi Zidian | 47,035 |
1916 | Zhonghua Da Zidian | 48,000 |
1989 | Hanyu Da Zidian | 54,678 |
1994 | Zhonghua Zihai | 85,568 |
2004 | Yitizi Zidian | 106,230[67] |
Year | Country | Name of dictionary | Number of characters |
---|---|---|---|
2003 | Japan | Dai Kan-Wa jiten | 50,000+ |
2008 | South Korea | Han-Han Dae Sajeon | 53,667 |
Even the Zhonghua Zihai fails to be completely comprehensive, as it ignores the roughly 1,500 Japanese-made kokuji given in the Kokuji no Jiten[68] as well as the chữ Nôm inventory used only in Vietnam in past days.[citation needed]
Modified radicals and new variants are two common reasons for the ever-increasing number of characters. There are about 300 radicals and 100 are in common use. Creating a new character by modifying the radical is an easy way to disambiguate homographs among xíngshēngzì pictophonetic compounds. This practice began long before the standardization of Chinese script by Qin Shi Huang and continues to the present day. The traditional 3rd-person pronoun tā (
Chinese
It is usually said that about 2,000 characters are needed for basic literacy in Chinese (for example, to read a Chinese newspaper),[citation needed] and a well-educated person will know well in excess of 4,000 to 5,000 characters.[citation needed] Note that Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words, as the majority of modern Chinese words, unlike their Old Chinese and Middle Chinese counterparts, are multi-morphemic and multi-syllabic compounds, that is, most Chinese words are written with two or more characters; each character representing one syllable. Knowing the meanings of the individual characters of a word will often allow the general meaning of the word to be inferred, but this is not invariably the case.
In China, which uses simplified Chinese characters, the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo (现代汉语
In the Republic of China (Taiwan), which uses traditional Chinese characters, the Ministry of Education's Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo (
In Hong Kong, which uses traditional Chinese characters, the Education and Manpower Bureau's Soengjung Zi Zijing Biu (
In addition, there is a large corpus of dialect characters (
Japanese
In Japanese there are 2,136 jōyō kanji (
The one area where character usage is officially restricted is in names, which may contain only government-approved characters. Since the jōyō kanji list excludes many characters which have been used in personal and place names for generations, an additional list, referred to as the jinmeiyō kanji (
Today, a well-educated Japanese person may know upwards of 3,500 kanji.[citation needed] The kanji kentei (
Written Japanese also includes a pair of syllabic scripts known as kana, which are used in combination with kanji. In Japanese, verb and adjective inflections, many small and common grammatical and function words, many loanwords, as well as miscellaneous other words, have no kanji forms and are instead written in kana. Therefore, written communication generally requires the use of kana as well as kanji.
Korean
In times past, until the 15th century, in Korea, Literary Chinese was the dominant form of written communication, prior to the creation of hangul, the Korean alphabet. Much of the vocabulary, especially in the realms of science and sociology, comes directly from Chinese, comparable to Latin or Greek root words in European languages. However due to the lack of tones in Korean, as the words were imported from Chinese, many dissimilar characters took on identical sounds, and subsequently identical spelling in hangul. Chinese characters are sometimes used to this day for either clarification in a practical manner, or to give a distinguished appearance, as knowledge of Chinese characters is considered a high class attribute and an indispensable part of a classical education. It is also observed that the preference for Chinese characters is treated as being conservative and Confucian.
In Korea, 한자 hanja have become a politically contentious issue, with some Koreans urging a "purification" of the national language and culture by totally abandoning their use. These individuals encourage the exclusive use of the native hangul alphabet throughout Korean society and the end to character education in public schools.
In South Korea, educational policy on characters has swung back and forth, often swayed by education ministers' personal opinions. At times, middle and high school students have been formally exposed to 1,800 to 2,000 basic characters, albeit with the principal focus on recognition, with the aim of achieving newspaper-literacy. Since there is little need to use hanja in everyday life, young adult Koreans are often unable to read more than a few hundred characters.
There is a clear trend toward the exclusive use of hangul in day-to-day South Korean society. Hanja are still used to some extent, particularly in newspapers, weddings, place names and calligraphy. Hanja is also extensively used in situations where ambiguity must be avoided, such as academic papers, high-level corporate reports, government documents, and newspapers; this is due to the large number of homonyms that have resulted from extensive borrowing of Chinese words.
The issue of ambiguity is the main hurdle in any effort to "cleanse" the Korean language of Chinese characters. Characters convey meaning visually, while alphabets convey guidance to pronunciation, which in turn hints at meaning. As an example, in Korean dictionaries, the phonetic entry for 기사 gisa yields more than 30 different entries. In the past, this ambiguity had been efficiently resolved by parenthetically displaying the associated hanja.
In the modern hangul-based Korean writing system, Chinese characters are no longer used to represent native morphemes.
In North Korea, the government, wielding much tighter control than its sister government to the south, has banned Chinese characters from virtually all public displays and media, and mandated the use of hangul in their place.
Vietnamese
Although now nearly extinct in Vietnam, varying scripts of Chinese characters (hán tự) were once in widespread use to write the language, although hán tự became limited to ceremonial uses beginning in the 19th century. Similarly to Japan and Korea, Chinese (especially Literary Chinese) was used by the ruling classes, and the characters were eventually adapted to write Vietnamese. To express native Vietnamese words which had different pronunciations from the Chinese, Vietnamese developed the chữ Nôm script which used various methods to distinguish native Vietnamese words from Chinese. Vietnamese is currently exclusively written in the Vietnamese alphabet, a derivative of the Latin alphabet.
Modern creation
New characters can in principle be coined at any time, just as new words can be, but they may not be adopted. Significant historically recent coinages date to scientific terms of the 19th century. Specifically, Chinese coined new characters for chemical elements – see chemical elements in East Asian languages – which continue to be used and taught in schools in China and Taiwan. In Japan, in the Meiji era (specifically, late 19th century), new characters were coined for some (but not all) SI units, such as
While new characters can be easily coined by writing on paper, they are difficult to represent on a computer – they must generally be represented as a picture, rather than as text – which presents a significant barrier to their use or widespread adoption. Compare with use of symbols as names in 20th century musical albums such as Led Zeppelin IV (1971) and Love Symbol Album (1993) – an album cover may potentially contain any graphics, but in writing and other computation these symbols are difficult to use.
Rare and complex characters
Often a character not commonly used (a "rare" or "variant" character) will appear in a personal or place name in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese (see Chinese name, Japanese name, Korean name, and Vietnamese name, respectively). This has caused problems as many computer encoding systems include only the most common characters and exclude the less oft-used characters. This is especially a problem for personal names which often contain rare or classical, antiquated characters.
One man who has encountered this problem is Taiwanese politician Yu Shyi-kun, due to the rarity of the last character in his name. Newspapers have dealt with this problem in varying ways, including using software to combine two existing, similar characters, including a picture of the personality, or, especially as is the case with Yu Shyi-kun, simply substituting a homophone for the rare character in the hope that the reader would be able to make the correct inference. Taiwanese political posters, movie posters etc. will often add the bopomofo phonetic symbols next to such a character. Japanese newspapers may render such names and words in katakana instead of kanji, and it is accepted practice for people to write names for which they are unsure of the correct kanji in katakana instead.
There are also some extremely complex characters which have understandably become rather rare. According to Joël Bellassen (1989), the most complex Chinese character is /𪚥 (U+2A6A5) zhé , meaning "verbose" and boasting sixty-four strokes; this character fell from use around the 5th century. It might be argued, however, that while boasting the most strokes, it is not necessarily the most complex character (in terms of difficulty), as it simply requires writing the same sixteen-stroke character
One of the most complex characters found in modern Chinese dictionaries[70] is 齉 (U+9F49) (nàng, , pictured below, middle image), meaning "snuffle" (that is, a pronunciation marred by a blocked nose), with "just" thirty-six strokes. However, this is not in common use. The most complex character that can be input using the Microsoft New Phonetic IME 2002a for traditional Chinese is 龘 (dá, "the appearance of a dragon flying"). It is composed of the dragon radical represented three times, for a total of 16 × 3 = 48 strokes. Among the most complex characters in modern dictionaries and also in frequent modern use are 籲 (yù, "to implore"), with 32 strokes;
In Japanese, an 84-stroke kokuji exists: [71]—it is composed of three "cloud" (
The most complex Chinese character still in use may be biáng (pictured right, bottom), with 57 strokes, which refers to Biang biang noodles, a type of noodle from China's Shaanxi province. This character along with syllable biang cannot be found in dictionaries. The fact that it represents a syllable that does not exist in any Standard Chinese word means that it could be classified as a dialectal character.
Chinese calligraphy
The art of writing Chinese characters is called Chinese calligraphy. It is usually done with ink brushes. In ancient China, Chinese calligraphy is one of the Four Arts of the Chinese Scholars. There is a minimalist set of rules of Chinese calligraphy. Every character from the Chinese scripts is built into a uniform shape by means of assigning it a geometric area in which the character must occur. Each character has a set number of brushstrokes; none must be added or taken away from the character to enhance it visually, lest the meaning be lost. Finally, strict regularity is not required, meaning the strokes may be accentuated for dramatic effect of individual style. Calligraphy was the means by which scholars could mark their thoughts and teachings for immortality, and as such, represent some of the more precious treasures that can be found from ancient China.
See also
- List of languages written in Chinese characters and derivatives of Chinese characters
- Romanization of Chinese
- Transcription into Chinese characters
- Wiktionary:Chinese total strokes index
- Wiktionary:Chinese radical index
- Eight Principles of Yong
- Character amnesia
- Chinese character encoding
- Chinese input methods for computers
- Chinese numerals, or how to write numbers with Chinese characters
- Blissymbols (an international auxiliary logographic script)
- Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts
- Sinosphere
- A Book from the Sky, an attempt by a world-famous artist to create new, meaningless Chinese characters
References
- ^ a b c Sawndip Sawdenj (
古 壮 字 字典 ; Dictionary of Ancient Zhuang Characters), Guangxi Ethnicities Publishing (广西民族 出版 社 ), 1989. ISBN 7536306148 / 9787536306141. Note: The character for "saw", ⿰書 史 , is supposed to be one character, with a書 radical on the left, and史 radical on the right. Similarly, "ndip" (⿰立 生 ) is one character, made up of立 and生 radicals. As of present, there are limitations in displaying Zhuang logograms in Unicode, as they are unsupported. - ^ Potowski, Kim (2010). Language Diversity in the USA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-521-74533-8.
- ^ "Chinese Writing Symbols". Kwintessential. Retrieved 2010-03-20.
- ^ "History of Chinese Writing Shown in the Museums". CCTV online. Retrieved 2010-03-20.
- ^ Jane P. Gardner & J. Elizabeth Mills. "Journey to East Asia". Everything.com, F+W Media. Retrieved 2010-03-20. [dead link]
- ^ Norman, Jerry (2008). "Chinese Writing". Retrieved 2009-08-17.
- ^ East Asian Languages at pinyin.info
- ^ Wood, Clare Patricia (2009). Contemporary perspectives on reading and spelling. New York: Routledge. p. 203. ISBN 9780415497169.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Victor Mair, "Polysyllabic characters in Chinese writing", Language Log, 2011 August 2
- ^ Qiu Xigui, p. 31. 2000.)
- ^ BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Chinese writing '8,000 years old' ; "Carvings may rewrite history of Chinese characters". Xinhua online. 2007-05-18. Retrieved 2007-05-19.; Unknown (2003-05-18). "'Chinese writing 8,000 years old'". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
- ^ a b Paul Rincon (2003-04-17). "Earliest writing'which was found in China". BBC News.
- ^ Qiu Xigui, p. 38. 2000.
- ^ Yu Xingwu, p. 32. 1973; op. cit. Qiu Xigui, p. 35. 2000.
- ^ Tang Lan, pp. 72-73. 1975; op. cit. Qiu Xigui, p. 35. 2000.
- ^ Li Xueqin. 1985; op. cit. Qiu Xigui, p. 35. 2000.
- ^ Wang Ningsheng, p. 27. 1981; op. cit. Qiu Xigui, p. 35. 2000.
- ^ Wang, Ningsheng, p. 28. 1981; op. cit. Qiu Xigui, p. 38. 2000.
- ^ Boltz, William G. "Early Chinese Writing". World Archaeology, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 420–436. Early Writing Systems (1986).
The earliest known form of Chinese writing are the so-called 'oracle bone inscriptions' of the late Shang, divinatory inscriptions incised on turtle plastrons and ox scapulae, dating from about 1200–1050 BC. Shang bronze inscriptions from about 1100 BC constitute the second-earliest source of evidence for archaic Chinese writing.
- ^ Keightley, David N. "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China". Representations, No. 56, Special Issue: The New Erudition (1996), pp.68–95.
The oracle-bone inscriptions of the Late Shang dynasty (c. 1200–1050 BC), the earliest body of writing we yet possess for East Asia, were written in a script ancestral to all subsequent forms of Chinese writing.
- ^ DeFrancis, John. Visible Speech. The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems: Chinese.
- ^ Qiú 2000 pp.63–4, 66, 86, 88–9, 104–7 & 124.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.60, and pp.59–150 in general.
- ^ Chén Zhāoróng 2003.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.104.
- ^ Qiú 2000; p.59 & p.104–7.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.119.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.l23.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.119 & 123–4.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.130.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.121.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.132–3 provides archaeological evidence for this dating, in contrast to unsubstantiated claims dating the beginning of cursive anywhere from the Qin to the Eastern Han.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.131 &133.
- ^ a b c d e Qiú 2000, p.138.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.131.
- ^ a b Qiú 2000, p.139.
- ^ Qiú 2000 p.113 & 139.
- ^ Qiú 2000, pp.140–1 mentions examples of neo-clerical with “strong overtones of cursive script” from the late Eastern Han.
- ^ Qiú 2000 p.142.
- ^ Liu is said to have taught Zhong Yao and Wang Xizhi.
- ^ Qiú 2000 p.140
- ^ Transcript of lecture 《楷法
無 欺》 by田 英章 . Retrieved 2010-05-22. - ^ a b Qiú 2000, p.143.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.144.
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.148.
- ^ Wáng Xīzhī is so credited by essays by other calligraphers in the 6th to early 7th centuries, and most of his extant pieces are in modern cursive script (Qiú 2000, p.148).
- ^ Qiú 2000, p.145.
- ^ http://www.tiaccwhf.net/~t038/kaho/newpage82.htm
- ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image:Chinese_Pictographs.ogg&oldid=184680243
- ^ Handbook of Ancient Pronunciations of Chinese Characters (
漢字 古音 手 册 ), Guo, Xi-liang, Peking Univ. Press, 1986. - ^ The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System, William G. Boltz, pp. 104–110, ISBN 0-940490-18-8.
- ^ The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System, William Boltz, 1994, p.169
- ^ Database query to Chinese characters –
沖 by Sergei Starostin - ^ Database query to Chinese characters –
中 by Sergei Starostin - ^ Hanyu Da Cidian
- ^ 2006-04-21, “圕”
字 怎么念 ?什么意思 ?谁造的 ?, Singtao Net - ^ 2009
年 03月 20日 , “圕”字 字 怎么念 ?台 教育 部 门负责人被 考 倒 , Xinhua News Agency - ^ Mair, Victor H. (September 2009). "danger + opportunity ≠ crisis: How a misunderstanding about Chinese characters has led many astray". Retrieved August 20, 2010.
- ^ Montucci, 1817. Urh-chĭh-tsze-tëen-se-yĭn-pe-keáou; being a parallel drawn between the two intended Chinese dictionaries; by the Rev. Robert Morrison, and Antonio Montucci, LL. D.
- ^ Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5.
- ^ http://www.cflac.org.cn/chinaartnews/2003-10/08/content_1024511.htm
- ^ http://www.huaxia.com/ssjn/smxx/00197002.html
- ^ REV. JUSTUS DOOLITTLE, ed. (1871). The Chinese recorder and missionary journal, Volume 3. FOOCHOW.: American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 153. Retrieved 2010-06-28.(Original from Harvard University)
- ^ "Creating New Chinese Characters".
- ^ Updated from Norman, Jerry. Chinese. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1988, p. 72. ISBN 0521296536.
- ^ Zhou Youguang
周 有光 . The Historical Evolution of Chinese Languages and Scripts;中国 语文的 时代演 进, translated by Zhang Liqing 张立青 . Ohio State University National East Asian Language Resource Center. 2003, pp.72–73. - ^ 《
異體 字 字典 》網 路 版 說明 Official website for "The Dictionary of Chinese Variant Form", Introductory page - ^ Hida & Sugawara, 1990, Tokyodo Shuppan.
- ^ Hakka Dictionary
- ^ (U+9F49) nàng is found, for instance, on p.707 of
漢 英 辭典 (修訂 版 ) A Chinese–English Dictionary, (Revised Edition) Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Beijing, 1995. ISBN 7-5600-0739-2. - ^ http://www.mojikyo.gr.jp/gif96/066/066147.gif
Sources
- Generalities
- This article incorporates text from The Chinese recorder and missionary journal, Volume 3, a publication from 1871, now in the public domain in the United States.
- Qiú, Xīguī 裘錫
圭 (2000). Chinese writing. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies. [English translation by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman of Wénzìxué Gàiyào文字 學 概要 , Shangwu, 1988.]
- Ancient characters
- Boltz, William G. (1994). The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system. New Haven: The American Oriental Society.
- Keightley, David (1978). Sources of Shang history: the oracle-bone inscriptions of bronze-age China. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Further reading
- Samuel Wells Williams (1842). Easy lessons in Chinese: or progressive exercises to facilitate the study of that language. Printed at the Office of the Chinese Repository. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- Herbert Allen Giles (1892). A Chinese-English dictionary, Volume 1. B. Quaritch. p. 1415. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- P. Poletti (1896). A Chinese and English dictionary, arranged according to radicals and sub-radicals. Printed at the American Presbyterian mission press. p. 307. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- William Edward Soothill (1900). The student's four thousand [characters] and general pocket dictionary (2 ed.). American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 420. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- John Chalmers (1882). An account of the structure of Chinese characters under 300 primary forms: after the Shwoh-wan, 100 A.D., and the phonetic Shwoh-wan, 1833. Trübner & co. p. 199. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- Chinese and English dictionary: compiled from reliable authors. American Tract Society. 1893. p. 348. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- Joseph Edkins (1876). Introduction to the study of the Chinese characters. Trübner & co. p. 314. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- Kangxi (Emperor of China) (1842). Chinese and English dictionary: containing all the words in the Chinese imperial dictionary; arranged according to the radicals, Volume 1. Printed at Parapattan. Retrieved 2011-05-15.
- The six scripts. AMOY: Printed by A. A. Marcal. 1881. p. 61. Retrieved 10th of February, 2012.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help)(Harvard University)(Translated by Lionel Charles Hopkins ) (Note:Tond Dai and T'ung Tai are the same person, he was counted as two authors on google books) - The six scripts: or, The principles of Chinese writing. CUP Archive. 1954. p. 84. Retrieved 10th of February, 2012.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help)(Translated by Lionel Charles Hopkins, Walter Perceval Yetts ) - The Six Scripts Or the Principles of Chinese Writing by Tai Tung: A Translation by L. C. Hopkins, with a Memoir of the Translator by W. Perceval Yetts. Cambridge University Press. 2012. p. 114. ISBN 1107605156. Retrieved 10th of February, 2012.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help)(Translated by L. C. Hopkins )
External links
- History and construction of Chinese characters
- Chinese Chess
- History of Chinese writing
- Evolution of Chinese Characters
- Zhongwen.com : a searchable dictionary with information about character formation
- Chinese character etymologies
- Chinese Characters: Explanation of the forms of Chinese Characters; of their ideographic nature. Based on the Shuo Wen, other traditional sources and modern archeological finds.
- Chinese characters in computing
- Unihan Database: Chinese, Japanese, and Korean references, readings, and meanings for all the Chinese and Chinese-derived characters in the Unicode character set
- cchar.com: Step by step pictures showing how to write Chinese characters
- Daoulagad Han — Mobile OCR hanzi dictionary, OCR interface to the UniHan database
- Others
- Chinese Text Project Dictionary Comprehensive character dictionary including data for all Chinese characters in Unicode, and exemplary usage from early Chinese texts.
- Chinese and English dictionary: compiled from reliable authors. American Tract Society. 1893. Retrieved 2011-05-15.
- Kangxi (Emperor of China) (1842). Chinese and English dictionary: containing all the words in the Chinese imperial dictionary; arranged according to the radicals, Volume 1. Printed at Parapattan. Retrieved 2011-05-15.
Template:Link GA Template:Link GA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA