舉個具體例子說明,一間公司會嘗試攞「對呢件貨嘅需求有幾大」嘅資訊(可以睇供應同需求),並且按照呢啲資訊作出生產(例如生產嘅量唔會大得滯,費事搞到啲貨賣唔嗮);生產完之後,啲消費者又會做大致理性嘅決策,嘗試對比同類嘅貨(例:牌子 A 嘅衫同牌子 B 嘅衫都可以滿足「要著衫」嘅需要),並且按照呢啲資訊嚟買能夠令自己得益最大嘅貨;如是者,個經濟體入面就形成咗生產同消費嘅現象[2]。
微觀經濟學可以話係同宏觀經濟學(Macroeconomics)相對,兩者形成經濟學兩大子領域。宏觀經濟學關注經濟活動嘅整體,會研究社會層面嘅經濟現象,例如係經濟增長、通貨膨脹同失業呀噉。微觀經濟學上嘅研究對宏觀經濟學相當有用-宏觀層面嘅現象好多時都係由微觀層面嘅現象結合(aggregate)而成嘅,例如經濟增長噉,當一個經濟體嗰啲個體生產多咗消費多咗嗰陣,個經濟體啲經濟指標(例如 GDP)就會出現變動反映呢啲變化,所以 GDP 等嘅好多宏觀層面現象查實都係源於一大柞個體層面嘅行為[3]。
生產可能性曲線(production-possibility frontier,簡稱「PPF」)係一種用嚟表達稀缺性、成本、同效率嘅圖。假想而家有間好簡單嘅工廠,佢淨係曉生產「槍」(gun)同「牛油」(butter)兩種貨品,佢幅 PPF 條Y 軸係「生產嘅槍嘅量」,而 X 軸係「生產嘅牛油嘅量」。呢間工廠手頭上嘅資源係有限嘅,如果佢想生產多啲槍,佢就要生產少啲牛油-即係話兩個量之間嘅關係必然係負,條線所包含嘅面積必然係有限嘅。喺 B、D、同 C 呢三點嗰度,間工廠都係用嗮全力去生產,喺 A 嗰點,間工廠冇用嗮全力生產,而 X 嗰點係間工廠冇能力達到嘅一個狀態[17]。
一間公司(firm)係指一班共同一齊進行生產嘅人:喺現實世界嘅市場入面,好難吓吓都要啲有份生產嘅人個個各自獨立噉開舖頭向買家賣自己嘅貨品服務,所以喺供應嗰邊,好多時會有多個人員集合埋一齊成立一啲合作生產同賣貨品服務嘅組織-呢啲組織就係所謂嘅公司。英國經濟學家羅勞·哥斯(Ronald Coase)指出,公司嘅存在源於人喺一間公司裏面一齊做生產嘅成本低過自己直接喺市場上做生產一大截-對於一個個人嚟講,公司結合咗員工同埋資本,加入一間公司可以達到自己獨立開舖頭達唔到嘅規模經濟(economies of scale),所以就令啲人有誘因結合埋一齊,組成公司[21]。
理論同實證經濟研究表示咗,要達到高嘅效率,其中一種最好嘅做法係分工(division of labor)[29]。考慮返上面嗰個生產槍同牛油嘅工廠嘅例子說明,想像家吓嗰間廠隔籬開咗另一間都係生產槍同牛油嘅廠,但係兩間廠條 PPF 嘅斜率唔同:如果 A 廠要生產多 10 嚿牛油就要放棄生產少 10 支槍,而 B 廠(例如因為啲工人嘅專長同 A 廠嘅唔同)要生產多 10 嚿牛油就需要放棄生產成 50 支槍-喺呢個情況下,B 廠生產牛油嘅機會成本會大過 A 廠嘅好多,所以 B 廠比起 A 廠會更加有誘因集中於生產槍;同時,A 廠相比之下會比較有誘因集中去生產牛油。即係話 A 廠喺生產牛油上有比較優勢(comparative advantage),而 B 廠就喺生產槍上有比較優勢。而如果 A 廠同 B 廠開始各自集中生產自己叻生產嘅貨品,就形成咗一個分工嘅局勢[30][31]。
A 廠
B 廠
生產多 10 嚿牛油嘅機會成本
10 支槍
50 支槍
全力生產牛油所得
500 嚿牛油
1,000 嚿牛油
全力生產牛油所失
500 支槍
5,000 支槍
雖然呢個例子就噉望落好似係 A 廠比較叻做生產噉,但係 B 廠依然可能係有絕對優勢(absolute advantage)嘅。舉個例子說明,如果兩間廠都用嗮全力生產牛油嘅話,(可能)A 廠會生產到 500 嚿牛油,而 B 廠會生產到 1,000 嚿牛油,但係喺全力生產牛油嘅過程當中,A 廠只係放棄咗 500 支槍,而 B 廠就會放棄咗成 5,000 支槍-B 廠集中生產牛油嘅機會成本高 A 廠嘅一大截,所以 B 廠雖然喺生產兩樣貨品上都叻過 A 廠,但佢依然比較有誘因集中生產槍[30]。
分工同比較優勢係貿易(trade)嘅起源:人同人之間以至國家同國家之間喺「擅長生產乜嘢」呢一點上都有差異:例如假想而家有兩個人,A 君比較叻煮嘢食,B 君比較叻整電腦,A 君會比較有誘因去開餐廳,而 B 君會比較有誘因去搵份做電腦技術員嘅工,B 君冇 A 君咁肯花時間煮嘢食,所以日日晏晝都去幫襯 A 君間餐廳,將佢做技術員賺到嘅錢俾 A 君嚟換取嘢食-兩個人之間形成咗一種互利嘅貿易關係;呢種現象喺國與國之間都會睇到,例如俄羅斯嘅國土石油含量多過日本嘅好多,所以比起日本更加有誘因發展石油產業,而當日本想要用石油嗰陣,就可能會問俄羅斯攞,但俄羅斯(定係是但一個產油國)正路唔會免費送石油俾日本,所以日本要搵返啲有價值嘅嘢(最直接嘅係錢)送俾俄羅斯,等俄羅斯有誘因俾石油佢-國際貿易就形成咗[33][34]。
錢(money)係一樣源於貿易嘅需要而有嘅發明。攞返上面 A 君同 B 君嘅例子說明,B 君想食 A 君煮嘅飯餸,但 A 君要生活,唔可以吓吓都免費幫人煮飯餸,所以 B 君又要俾返啲有價值嘅嘢 A 君嚟換取飯餸。喺呢個情況下,B 君可以用以物易物(barter)嘅方法[36],例如係送啲電腦零件俾 A 君嚟換取飯餸。之但係,如果 A 君唔需要電腦零件嘅話,噉 B 君就會冇價值俾得到 A 君-單交易做唔成。而家想像有一樣嘢 X,佢係普遍有價值嘅,可以攞嚟換做任何嘅貨品或者服務都得,噉單交易就做得成-B 君可以俾某個量嘅 X 俾 A 君,等 A 君打後有得用佢開餐廳所賺返嚟嘅 X 去換取佢自己想要嘅嘢-而 X 就係錢。錢呢樣發明對於經濟嚟講好緊要,佢令到做起貿易上嚟簡單方便好多,而且仲扮演咗量度貨品服務嘅價值、令到人有得儲蓄、同容許延期付款等嘅多種功能[37][38]。
喺一個市場入面,是但搵一樣俾人買賣緊嘅貨品或者服務,佢會至少有兩個屬性:價格(price)同埋數量(quantity)。而供應同需求(supply and demand)嘅理論就解釋價格同數量之間嘅啦掕。喺微觀經濟學上,呢個理論能夠預測喺一個有完全競爭(perfect competition;指冇任何一個買家或者賣家大到有能力獨力掌控啲貨品服務嘅價格)嘅市場下嘅貨品同服務嘅價格[2][43]。
需求定律(law of demand)宣稱,是但搵個市場同是但一件貨品服務,假設第啲因素不變,佢價格同買家會買嘅量之間會形成負關係(條線嘅斜率係負數)-價格愈高買家就會買得愈少,而價格愈低買家就會買得愈多。呢條定律係稀缺性嘅必然結果:價格係啲買家每買一件就要付出嘅資源量,所以一件貨品服務嘅價格乘需求量(買家有能力又肯買嘅量)反映買家有能力付出幾多資源嚟買件貨品服務,但錢係一樣有限嘅資源,所以價格同需求量乘埋出嗰個數()一定係一個有限嘅數值;如果條需求曲線係由頭到尾都打橫()、打直()或者成正斜率()嘅話,就會出現價格同需求量乘埋個數可以係無限大嘅情況,所以如果錢有稀缺性,噉需求曲線只可以係一條斜率係負數嘅線[48]。
舉個例說明,假想家陣有兩件貨品,X 同 Y,兩個條需求曲線都成直線,X 嗰條斜率高啲(需求彈性低啲),噉嘅話如果兩件貨品嘅價格同時上升 1 文,對 X 嘅需求量嘅跌幅會細過對 Y 嘅需求量嘅。即係話 X 嘅需求量對價格改變反應冇咁大-就算 X 價格變,消費者買嘅數量都冇變得咁明顯。X 需求彈性低啲可以係因為好多原因:例如可能 X 係一樣好似鹽同糖噉嘅生活必需品,所以就算 X 平咗,消費者都唔會太有動力買多啲,而 X 就算貴咗,好多消費者都仲係要焗住買咁多;Y 就可能係一啲好似魚子醬噉嘅奢侈品,Y 對消費者嚟講唔係生活必需嘅,所以佢價格一升,消費者可以索性唔買,但 Y 一平,就會好多消費者想買[55]。
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