'''精英政治'''、'''精英治國'''、'''任人唯才'''、'''唯才是用'''或'''選賢舉能'''（{{lang-en|Meritocracy}}、{{lang-zh-yue|唯才主義}}、{{lang-la|I earn}}、{{lang-gr| κράτος kratos "strength, power"}}）通常是指一種[[政治哲學]]思想，主張權力的分配應根據個人之才能與功績。在這種體系內，個人的上位與進階是基於其在該領域內的功績和經考試檢定的智慧天賦。<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of merit|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/meritocracy?s=t|publisher=[[Dictionary.com]]}}</ref>
'''菁英政治'''、'''菁英治國'''、'''任人唯才'''、'''唯才是用'''或'''選賢舉能'''（{{lang-en|Meritocracy}}、{{lang-zh-yue|唯才主義}}、{{lang-la|I earn}}、{{lang-gr| κράτος kratos "strength, power"}}）通常是指一種[[政治哲學]]思想，主張權力的分配應根據個人之才能與功績。在這種體系內，個人的上位與進階是基於其在該領域內的功績和經考試檢定的智慧天賦。<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of merit|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/meritocracy?s=t|publisher=[[Dictionary.com]]|accessdate=2016-10-03|archive-date=2016-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306040546/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/meritocracy?s=t|dead-url=no}}</ref>
==定义==
==定义==
===广义上的理论===
===广义上的理论===
检测一个人是否有成就、是否是“精英”，最常见也是最有利的测试方法有可能是以[[IQ]]最为标准化成就测验”。<ref>{{cite book|last=Levinson|first=David|last2=Cookson|first2=Peter W.|last3=Sadovnik|first3=Alan R.|title=Education and Sociology: An Encyclopedia|year=2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=436|quote=most common definition of meritocracy conceptualizes merit in terms tested competency and ability, and most likely as measured by IQ or standardized achievement tests}}</ref>在行政意义上，作为政府或其他管理单位，在日常工作中(如工商管理)，检测一个人是否是精英，通常是将任命的事物和责任分配给某个人，再根据他们的“优点”，即智能，凭证，和教育，进行评估或考试。
检测一个人是否有成就、是否「菁英」，最常見也是最有利的测试方法有可能是以[[IQ]]最为标准化成就测验”。<ref>{{cite book|last=Levinson|first=David|last2=Cookson|first2=Peter W.|last3=Sadovnik|first3=Alan R.|title=Education and Sociology: An Encyclopedia|year=2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=436|quote=most common definition of meritocracy conceptualizes merit in terms tested competency and ability, and most likely as measured by IQ or standardized achievement tests}}</ref>在行政意义上，作为政府或其他管理单位，在日常工作中(如工商管理)，检测一个人是否是菁英，通常是将任命的事物和责任分配给某个人，再根据他们的“优点”，即智能，凭证，和教育，进行评估或考试。
但是，一般的意义上，精英可以指任何形式的管理成就。“[[功利主义]]”和“[[务实]]”、“[[精英]]”这三个词还赋予了一个更广泛的定义，并可能被用来指'''任何对政府有“裁决或有影响力的教育或有能力的一类人。”'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/meritocracy|title=Definition of Meritocracy|work=Oxford Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|accessdate=2011-09-12}}</ref>与原来的词性相比，这个术语的使用在1958年由{{link-en|邁克爾·楊男爵|Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington|邁克爾·楊}}，将它归类为一个性质。<ref>{{cite book|title=Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought|year=1988|publisher=Fontana Press|page=521}}</ref>
但是，一般的意义上，菁英可以指任何形式的管理成就。“[[功利主义]]”和“[[务实]]”、“[[菁英]]”这三个词还赋予了一个更广泛的定义，并可能被用来指'''任何对政府有“裁决或有影响力的教育或有能力的一类人。”'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/meritocracy|title=Definition of Meritocracy|work=Oxford Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|accessdate=2011-09-12|archive-date=2012-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331091835/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/meritocracy|dead-url=no}}</ref>与原来的词性相比，这个术语的使用在1958年由{{link-en|邁克爾·楊男爵|Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington|邁克爾·楊}}，将它归类为一个性质。<ref>{{cite book|title=Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/fontanadictionar0000unse|year=1988|publisher=Fontana Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/fontanadictionar0000unse/page/521 521]}}</ref>
假设一个人的功绩总能起到示范作用，并被人们加以修饰，那么这样的一个人就很有可能变成英雄，换句话来说，示范的作用对于精英的培育过程中是必不可少的，示范的作用是直接影响一个人是否能够成为精英的内在因素，因此掌握和示范性的做一些事情，有利于促进精英的培育，其中最鲜明的例子是[[亚里士多德]]，精英相当于亚里士多德的概念是基于贵族或寡头结构，而不是在现代国家的背景。<ref>Aristot. Pol. 2.1261b</ref><ref>Aristotle, (351 BC) ''Politics''. Book Three Part IV. (Jowett, B., Trans)</ref>
假设一个人的功绩总能起到示范作用，并被人们加以修饰，那么这样的一个人就很有可能变成英雄，换句话来说，示范的作用对于菁英的培育过程中是必不可少的，示范的作用是直接影响一个人是否能够成为菁英的内在因素，因此掌握和示范性的做一些事情，有利于促进菁英的培育，其中最鲜明的例子是[[亚里士多德]]，菁英相当于亚里士多德的概念是基于贵族或寡头结构，而不是在现代国家的背景。<ref>Aristot. Pol. 2.1261b</ref><ref>Aristotle, (351 BC) ''Politics''. Book Three Part IV. (Jowett, B., Trans)</ref>
第一个精英选拔制度是在公元前二世纪的汉朝，推出了世界上第一个公务员考试评价官员的“好处”。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Casey|first=Wilson|title=Firsts: Origins of Everyday Things That Changed the World|publisher=Penguin USA|isbn=978-1-59257-924-2|year=2009}}</ref>精英作为一个概念，在17世纪从中国传播到英属印度,然后进入欧洲大陆和美国。<ref name="APH">Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142.</ref>
第一个菁英选拔制度是在公元前二世纪的汉朝，推出了世界上第一个公务员考试评价官员的“好处”。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Casey|first=Wilson|title=Firsts: Origins of Everyday Things That Changed the World|url=https://archive.org/details/firstsoriginsofe0000case|publisher=Penguin USA|isbn=978-1-59257-924-2|year=2009}}</ref>菁英作为一个概念，在17世纪从中国传播到英属印度，然后进入欧洲大陆和美国。<ref name="APH">Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142.</ref>
今天的精英筛选最常见的筛查方式的看这个人是否是专科或者大学学历，但这样的弊端是造成人力资源过剩。由于种种原因，高等教育本身就是一个不完美的精英筛选系统，如缺乏全球统一标准、<ref>What's College For?: The Struggle To Define American Higher Education; Zachary Karabell; ISBN 978-0-465-09152-2</ref><ref>Journal of College Teaching & Learning – May 2008 Volume 5, Number 5 AACSB Accreditation</ref>缺乏范围(不包括所有职业和工作流程在内)，以及缺乏(有一些贤人永远不会有机会参与,因为费用,这种情况尤其是发展中国家常有)。<ref>{{cite book|title=Higher education and social justice |author1=Furlong, Andy|author2=Cartmel, Fred|isbn=978-0-335-22362-6|publisher=Open University Press|location =Maidenhead}}</ref>
今天的菁英筛选最常见的筛查方式的看这个人是否是专科或者大学学历，但这样的弊端是造成人力资源过剩。由于种种原因，高等教育本身就是一个不完美的菁英筛选系统，如缺乏全球统一标准、<ref>What's College For?: The Struggle To Define American Higher Education; Zachary Karabell; ISBN 978-0-465-09152-2</ref><ref>Journal of College Teaching & Learning – May 2008 Volume 5, Number 5 AACSB Accreditation</ref>缺乏范围(不包括所有职业和工作流程在内)，以及缺乏(有一些贤人永远不会有机会参与，因为费用，这种情况尤其是发展中国家常有)。<ref>{{cite book|title=Higher education and social justice |author1=Furlong, Andy|author2=Cartmel, Fred|isbn=978-0-335-22362-6|publisher=Open University Press|location =Maidenhead}}</ref>
尽管这个概念已经存在了数个世纪，“精英”一词是相对较新。1958年英国政治家和社会学家[[Michael Young (politician)|Michael Young]]在他的著作中认为“精英政治”一词最早起源于拉丁语“好处”的根的组合(从“mereō”意味着“赚”)和古希腊后缀“-cracy”(意思是“权力”、“规则”)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=meritocracy|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|accessdate=3 July 2013|title="meritocracy" in the Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref>；精英的崛起，它指的应该是英国统治下的政府支持智力和能力(优点)高于一切。”<ref name="riseofmeri">{{cite book|last=Young|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Young (politician)|title=The rise of the meritocracy, 1870-2033: An essay on education and inequality|year=1958|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London| oclc=3943639}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Down with meritocracy: The man who coined the word four decades ago wishes Tony Blair would stop using it|last=Young|first=Michael|date=29 June 2001|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2001/jun/29/comment|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ford, Boris|year=1992|title=The Cambridge cultural history of Britain|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=34|isbn=978-0-521-42889-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kamolnick, Paul|year=2005|title=The just meritocracy: IQ, class mobility, and American social policy|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport CT|page=87|isbn=978-0-275-97922-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Best, Shaun|year=2005|title=Understanding Social Divisions|publisher=Sage|page=32|location=London|isbn=978-0-7619-4296-2}}</ref>
尽管这个概念已经存在了数个世纪，“菁英”一词是相对较新。1958年英国政治家和社会学家[[Michael Young (politician)|Michael Young]]在他的著作中认为“菁英政治”一词最早起源于拉丁语“好处”的根的组合(从“mereō”意味着“获得”)和古希腊后缀“-cracy”(意思是“权力”、“规则”)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=meritocracy|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|accessdate=3 July 2013|title="meritocracy" in the Online Etymology Dictionary|archive-date=2016-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911142951/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=meritocracy|dead-url=no}}</ref>；菁英的崛起，它指的应该是英国统治下的政府支持智力和能力(优点)高于一切。”<ref name="riseofmeri">{{cite book|last=Young|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Young (politician)|title=The rise of the meritocracy, 1870-2033: An essay on education and inequality|year=1958|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London| oclc=3943639}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Down with meritocracy: The man who coined the word four decades ago wishes Tony Blair would stop using it|last=Young|first=Michael|date=29 June 2001|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2001/jun/29/comment|location=London|accessdate=2016-10-03|archive-date=2013-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709034446/http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2001/jun/29/comment|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ford, Boris|year=1992|title=The Cambridge cultural history of Britain|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=34|isbn=978-0-521-42889-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kamolnick, Paul|year=2005|title=The just meritocracy: IQ, class mobility, and American social policy|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport CT|page=87|isbn=978-0-275-97922-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Best, Shaun|year=2005|title=Understanding Social Divisions|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingsoc0000best|publisher=Sage|page=[https://archive.org/details/understandingsoc0000best/page/n41 32]|location=London|isbn=978-0-7619-4296-2}}</ref>
在[[Michael Young (politician)|Michael Young]]的这本书中，[[Michael Young (politician)|Michael Young]]使用第一人称写的这篇文章，并描述战后英国政治的历史与虚构的未来事件的短期（1960年起）和长期（2020年起）。其中“精英”一词的术语就有着明显的负面、消极的含义。一个很现实的问题：一些年轻的人们如何合法成为精英的一员，并被统治集团加以利用？<ref name="young_p11">Young, Michael (1958). p. 11.</ref>
在[[Michael Young (politician)|Michael Young]]的这本书中，[[Michael Young (politician)|Michael Young]]使用第一人称写的这篇文章，并描述战后英国政治的历史与虚构的未来事件的短期（1960年起）和长期（2020年起）。其中“菁英”一词的术语就有着明显的负面、消极的含义。一个很现实的问题：一些年轻的人们如何合法成为菁英的一员，并被统治集团加以利用？<ref name="young_p11">Young, Michael (1958). p. 11.</ref>
==历史与传播==
==历史与传播==
第36行：
第41行：
{{See also|察舉|九品中正制|科举}}
{{See also|察舉|九品中正制|科举}}
最早的学术共识、行政精英例子起源于中国古代的[[察舉]]和[[科举]]考试<ref name="APHq">Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. ''One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed in the imperial bureaucracy of China.''</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Tan|first=Chung|first2=Yinzheng|last2=Geng|title=
最早的学术共识、行政菁英例子起源于中国古代的[[察舉]]和[[科举]]考试<ref name="APHq">Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. ''One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed in the imperial bureaucracy of China.''</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Tan|first=Chung|first2=Yinzheng|last2=Geng|title=
India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations|year=2005|publisher=University of Michigan Press|page=128|quote=China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy"}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Konner|first=Melvin|title=Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews|year=2003|publisher=Viking Compass|page=217|quote=China is the world's oldest meritocracy}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tucker|first1=Mary Evelyn|year=2009|title=Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia|journal=Ecology and the environment: perspectives from the humanities|page=51|publisher=[[Harvard Divinity School]]|quote=To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics}}</ref>{{NoteTag|name="a"}}。这个制度概念至少的起源于公元前6世纪，基於[[孔子]]主张的[[儒家]]思想<ref>{{cite book|last=Sienkewicz|first=Thomas J.|title=Encyclopedia of the Ancient World:|year=2003|publisher=Salem Press |page=434|quote=Confucius invented the notion that those who govern should so because of merit and not inherited status, setting in motion the creation of the imperial examinations and bureaucracies open only to those who passed tests}}</ref>。随着西汉提出“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的观点，以及隋唐时期创建和流行的科举制度的出现，这一切都是统治者为了维护自己的权力和庞大的帝国，这种制度被广泛应用，成为政府维护官员复杂网络的必要策略之一<ref name="BC" />。这种制度使得在这个政府机构内，未来的官员可能并不局限于贵族，也有来自农村、无任何政治背景普通百姓。排名是根据人员自身的价值决定的,通过察舉来选拔人才，逐渐成为社会流动的关键<ref name="BC">Burbank and Cooper (2010), 51.</ref>。[[三国時代]][[曹魏]]设立[[九品中正制]]，605年被[[隋文帝]]创立的[[科舉]]制度代替。
India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations|year=2005|publisher=University of Michigan Press|page=128|quote=China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy".}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Konner|first=Melvin|title=Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews|url=https://archive.org/details/unsettledanthrop00konn|year=2003|publisher=Viking Compass|page=[https://archive.org/details/unsettledanthrop00konn/page/217 217]|quote=China is the world's oldest meritocracy.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tucker|first1=Mary Evelyn|year=2009|title=Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia|journal=Ecology and the environment: perspectives from the humanities|page=51|publisher=[[Harvard Divinity School]]|quote=To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics.}}</ref>{{NoteTag|name="a"}}。这个制度概念至少的起源于公元前6世纪，基於[[孔子]]主张的[[儒家]]思想<ref>{{cite book|last=Sienkewicz|first=Thomas J.|title=Encyclopedia of the Ancient World:|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofan0000unse|year=2003|publisher=Salem Press |page=434|quote=Confucius invented the notion that those who govern should so because of merit and not inherited status, setting in motion the creation of the imperial examinations and bureaucracies open only to those who passed tests.}}</ref>。随着西汉提出“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的观点，以及隋唐时期创建和流行的科举制度的出现，这一切都是统治者为了维护自己的权力和庞大的帝国，这种制度被广泛应用，成为政府维护官员复杂网络的必要策略之一<ref name="BC" />。这种制度使得在这个政府机构内，未来的官员可能并不局限于贵族，也有来自农村、无任何政治背景普通百姓。排名是根据人员自身的价值决定的，通过察舉来选拔人才，逐渐成为社会流动的关键<ref name="BC">Burbank and Cooper (2010), 51.</ref>。[[三国時代]][[曹魏]]设立[[九品中正制]]，605年被[[隋文帝]]创立的[[科舉]]制度代替。
在公元632年[[穆罕默德]]死后,穆罕默德的家人正忙于他的葬礼。麦地那安萨尔讨论哪些穆斯林应该接替[[穆罕默德]]，并继续在运行事业。[[欧麦尔·本·赫塔卜]]和 [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]]承诺他们将忠诚于[[阿布·伯克尔]],[[阿布·伯克尔]]与安萨和古莱什族很快进行了交接。[[阿布·伯克尔]]因此成为第一个在Khalīfatu Rasūli l-Lāh“继任上帝旨意的使者和[[穆罕默德]]的接班人”，开始走上了传播伊斯兰教的道路。其中[[阿布·伯克尔]]就是靠自身的绩效获取本次选举的。<ref>{{cite book|author1=Azyumardi Azra|title=Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context|date=2006|publisher=[[Equinox Publishing (London)]]|isbn=9789799988812|page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=C. T. R. Hewer|author2=Allan Anderson|title=Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps|date=2006|publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd|isbn=9780334040323|page=37|edition=illustrated}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Anheier|editor1-first=Helmut K.|editor2-last=Juergensmeyer|editor2-first=Mark|title=Encyclopedia of Global Studies|date=2012-03-09|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=9781412994224|page=151}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Claire Alkouatli|title=Islam|date=2007|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=9780761421207|page=44|edition=illustrated, annotated}}</ref>
在公元632年[[穆罕默德]]死后，穆罕默德的家人正忙于他的葬礼。麦地那安萨尔讨论哪些穆斯林应该接替[[穆罕默德]]，并继续在运行事业。[[欧麦尔·本·赫塔卜]]和 [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]]承诺他们将忠诚于[[阿布·伯克尔]]，[[阿布·伯克尔]]与安萨和古莱什族很快进行了交接。[[阿布·伯克尔]]因此成为第一个在Khalīfatu Rasūli l-Lāh“继任上帝旨意的使者和[[穆罕默德]]的接班人”，开始走上了传播伊斯兰教的道路。其中[[阿布·伯克尔]]就是靠自身的绩效获取本次选举的。<ref>{{cite book|author1=Azyumardi Azra|title=Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiaislamde0000azra|date=2006|publisher=[[Equinox Publishing (London)]]|isbn=9789799988812|page=[https://archive.org/details/indonesiaislamde0000azra/page/n9 9]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=C. T. R. Hewer|author2=Allan Anderson|title=Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps|date=2006|publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd|isbn=9780334040323|page=37|edition=illustrated}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Anheier|editor1-first=Helmut K.|editor2-last=Juergensmeyer|editor2-first=Mark|title=Encyclopedia of Global Studies|date=2012-03-09|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=9781412994224|page=151}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Claire Alkouatli|title=Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000alko|date=2007|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=9780761421207|page=[https://archive.org/details/islam0000alko/page/44 44]|edition=illustrated, annotated}}</ref>
===19世纪：美国===
===19世纪：美国===
从1828年，[[美國聯邦政府]]使用[[獵官制]]再到1881年美国总统[[詹姆斯·艾布拉姆·加菲尔德]]被一个失望的求职者将其暗杀，已经能够证实[[獵官制]]的危险。两年后（也就是在1883年）[[美國聯邦政府]]通过了[[彭德尔顿法案]]，并将它加以修补，该法案规定,政府的工作人员应使用竞争性考试来选拔，并在这一基础上授予职位，而不是通过政客或政治背景的内部关系来给予一定的职位。这也使得非法解雇或降职的政府雇员不再出于单纯的政治原因。<ref name=penl>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3115 |title=Civil Service Reform |work=Digital History |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |accessdate=2016-02-19 }}</ref>
从1828年，[[美國聯邦政府]]使用[[獵官制]]再到1881年美国总统[[詹姆斯·艾布拉姆·加菲尔德]]被一个失望的求职者将其暗杀，已经能够证实[[獵官制]]的危险。两年后（也就是在1883年）[[美國聯邦政府]]通过了[[彭德尔顿法案]]，并将它加以修补，该法案规定，政府的工作人员应使用竞争性考试来选拔，并在这一基础上授予职位，而不是通过政客或政治背景的内部关系来给予一定的职位。这也使得非法解雇或降职的政府雇员不再出于单纯的政治原因。<ref name=penl>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3115 |title=Civil Service Reform |work=Digital History |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |accessdate=2016-02-19 |archive-date=2016-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312083614/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3115 |dead-url=no }}</ref>
在厄瓜多尔劳动部附近有一所学校, 这所学校名叫[http://www.meritocracia.gob.ec/ 厄瓜多尔精英学院]<ref>[http://www.meritocracia.gob.ec/ Web page of "Instituto Nacional de Meritocracia de Ecuador" ] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130705082239/http://www.meritocracia.gob.ec/ |date=2013-07-05 }}, 2013-03-12.</ref> 是新加坡政府的人力资源部的建议下而创建的。
==现代精英运动==
===奥绍理论===
根据[[奥绍]]的原理,只有具有相应资质条件的人应该被允许投票。此外,所有政治家都应该拥有适合自己的学院或大学学位。只有世界的天才应该执政。[[奥绍]]还说,每个国家首先应该拥有自己的精英教育,之后就是让这些人才逐渐加入和参与到日常实际工作中,在然后就是让他们彼此交流，最终形成一群全球精英。<ref>{{cite book|last1=keran|first1=kerai|title=merit the idea of government: how the world should be run|date=2014-05-29|publisher=football WC}}</ref>
一些比如[[GNOME基金会]]、[[Apache软件基金会]]、[[摩斯拉基金会]]和文檔基金會的(开源)组织，都纷纷正式宣称自己是精英教育。<ref>[https://live.gnome.org/Foundation/Charter GNOME基金会——宪章]</ref><ref>[http://www.apache.org/foundation/how-it-works.html#meritocracy ASF是如何工作的——Apache软件基金会<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.mozilla.org/about/governance.html 制作摩斯拉浏览器的商业组织]</ref><ref>[http://www.documentfoundation.org 欢迎来到文檔基金會]</ref>
一些比如[[GNOME基金会]]、[[Apache软件基金会]]、[[Mozilla基金會|摩斯拉基金会]]和文檔基金會的(开源)组织，都纷纷正式宣称自己是菁英教育。<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://live.gnome.org/Foundation/Charter |title=GNOME基金会——宪章 |accessdate=2016-10-03 |archive-date=2012-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512222719/http://live.gnome.org/Foundation/Charter |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.apache.org/foundation/how-it-works.html#meritocracy |title=ASF是如何工作的——Apache软件基金会<!-- Bot generated title --> |accessdate=2016-10-03 |archive-date=2011-06-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608001648/http://www.apache.org/foundation/how-it-works.html#meritocracy |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mozilla.org/about/governance.html |title=制作摩斯拉浏览器的商业组织 |accessdate=2016-10-03 |archive-date=2013-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620172857/http://www.mozilla.org/about/governance.html |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.documentfoundation.org/ |title=欢迎来到文檔基金會 |accessdate=2020-09-16 |archive-date=2012-06-21 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/68ZzwEFxJ?url=http://www.documentfoundation.org/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>
==批判==
==批判==
{{see also|公正世界理论}}
{{see also|公正世界理论}}
对于精英，已经引起很多人的批评和质疑。其中有人认为“精英”一词原本是一个消极的概念，最主要担忧是“绩效”的定义不清楚。<ref>Arrow, Bowles and Durlauf — 精英统治和经济上的不平等,(普林斯顿大学,1999)</ref>
对于菁英，已经引起很多人的批评和质疑。其中有人认为“精英”一词原本是一个消极的概念，最主要担忧是“绩效”的定义不清楚。<ref>Arrow, Bowles and Durlauf — 精英统治和经济上的不平等,(普林斯顿大学,1999)</ref>
{{Wiktionary|meritocracy}}
{{Wiktionary|meritocracy}}
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|refs =
{{NoteTag|name="a"|1=这是技术与精英之间的历史意义：精英的模糊定义为“人工智能”的统治，并且已经应用于许多国家，比如古代希腊、印度、中国，包括犹太思想家和政治家也对此深受影响。例如,最高法庭,立法机关的古代以色列和犹大王国,有时被称为“知识精英”,在这个意义上,其成员来自宗教文士，而并不是贵族<ref>{{cite book |last=Elazar|first=Daniel Judah |title=The Jewish polity: Jewish political organization from Biblical times to the present |year=1985 |publisher=Indiana University Press|page=127|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GntDdBeIOqwC&lpg=PA127&ots=6MByAfweKr&dq=sanhedrin%20meritocracy&pg=PA127#v=onepage&q=sanhedrin%20meritocracy&f=false}}</ref>对于贵族，尽管职务永久存在,然而,现有的成员会亲自选择新成员<ref>{{cite book |last=Novak|first=David|title=The Jewish social contract: an essay in political theology |year=2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=134|quote=The Sanhedrin were appointed by those who were members when there was a vacancy}}</ref>。从行政意义上的角度来说，这些都不是精英教育，只有经过能力测试的人，才能客观决定他是否拥有“这项胜任的能力”<ref>{{cite book |last=Levinson|first=David|last2=Cookson|first2=Peter W.|last3=Sadovnik |first3=lan R. |title = Education and sociology: an encyclopedia|year=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=436 }}</ref>。}}
{{NoteTag|name="a"|1=这是技术与菁英之间的历史意义：菁英的模糊定义为“人工智能”的统治，并且已经应用于许多国家，比如古代希腊、印度、中国，包括犹太思想家和政治家也对此深受影响。例如，最高法庭，立法机关的古代以色列和犹大王国，有时被称为“知识菁英”，在这个意义上，其成员来自宗教文士，而并不是贵族。<ref>{{cite book |last=Elazar|first=Daniel Judah |title=The Jewish polity: Jewish political organization from Biblical times to the present |year=1985 |publisher=Indiana University Press|page=127|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GntDdBeIOqwC&lpg=PA127&ots=6MByAfweKr&dq=sanhedrin%20meritocracy&pg=PA127#v=onepage&q=sanhedrin%20meritocracy&f=false}}</ref>对于贵族，尽管职务永久存在，然而，现有的成员会亲自选择新成员。<ref>{{cite book |last=Novak|first=David|title=The Jewish social contract: an essay in political theology |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishsocial_nova_2005_000_8228057|year=2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/jewishsocial_nova_2005_000_8228057/page/n159 134]|quote=The Sanhedrin were appointed by those who were members when there was a vacancy.}}</ref>从行政意义上的角度来说，这些都不是菁英教育，只有经过能力测试的人，才能客观决定他是否拥有“这项胜任的能力”。<ref>{{cite book |last=Levinson|first=David|last2=Cookson|first2=Peter W.|last3=Sadovnik |first3=lan R. |title = Education and sociology: an encyclopedia|year=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=436 }}</ref>}}
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==拓展阅读==
==拓展阅读==
* Burbank, Jane and Cooper, Frederick. (2010). ''Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12708-5.
* Burbank, Jane and Cooper, Frederick. (2010). ''Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12708-5.
* Estlund, David. (2003). ''[http://emilkirkegaard.dk/en/?p=3618 Why Not Epistocracy?]''.
* Kazin, Michael, Edwards, Rebecca, and Rothman, Adam. (2010). ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History Volume 2''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12971-1.
* Kazin, Michael, Edwards, Rebecca, and Rothman, Adam. (2010). ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History Volume 2''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12971-1.
* Kett, Joseph F. ''Merit: The History of a Founding Ideal From the American Revolution to the Twenty-First Century.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0801451225
* Kett, Joseph F. ''Merit: The History of a Founding Ideal From the American Revolution to the Twenty-First Century.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0801451225
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* [http://meritocracyparty.org The Meritocracy Party: Equal Opportunity for Every Child], organizes volunteers to bootstrap meritocracies in communities across the world.
* [http://meritocracyparty.org The Meritocracy Party: Equal Opportunity for Every Child] {{Wayback|url=http://meritocracyparty.org/ |date=20200523232652 }}, organizes volunteers to bootstrap meritocracies in communities across the world.
* {{cite web | title = World Wide Words: Meritocracy | website=World Wide Words |last= Quinion |first=Michael | authorlink = Michael Quinion |date = 2001-07-21 | url = http://www.worldwidewords.org/topicalwords/tw-mer1.htm |ref = {{sfnref | World Wide Words | 2001}} | accessdate = 2016-02-17 }}
* {{cite web | title = World Wide Words: Meritocracy | website = World Wide Words | last = Quinion | first = Michael | authorlink = Michael Quinion | date = 2001-07-21 | url = http://www.worldwidewords.org/topicalwords/tw-mer1.htm | ref = {{sfnref | World Wide Words | 2001}} | accessdate = 2016-02-17 | archive-date = 2016-03-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171535/http://www.worldwidewords.org/topicalwords/tw-mer1.htm | dead-url = no }}
* {{cite web |url = http://www.progressonline.org.uk/columns/column.asp?c=96 |title=Time for a more inclusive and progressive definition of meritocracy |last=Bent |first=Nick |work=[[Progress Online]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080605173828/http://www.progressonline.org.uk/columns/column.asp?c=96 |archivedate = 2008-06-05 |accessdate=2016-02-17 }}
* {{cite web |url = http://www.progressonline.org.uk/columns/column.asp?c=96 |title=Time for a more inclusive and progressive definition of meritocracy |last=Bent |first=Nick |work=[[Progress Online]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080605173828/http://www.progressonline.org.uk/columns/column.asp?c=96 |archivedate = 2008-06-05 |accessdate=2016-02-17 }}
^Levinson, David; Cookson, Peter W.; Sadovnik, Alan R. Education and Sociology: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. 2002: 436. most common definition of meritocracy conceptualizes merit in terms tested competency and ability, and most likely as measured by IQ or standardized achievement tests
^Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed in the imperial bureaucracy of China.
^Tan, Chung; Geng, Yinzheng. India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations. University of Michigan Press. 2005: 128. China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy".
^Tucker, Mary Evelyn. Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia. Ecology and the environment: perspectives from the humanities (Harvard Divinity School). 2009: 51. To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics.
^Sienkewicz, Thomas J. Encyclopedia of the Ancient World:. Salem Press. 2003: 434. Confucius invented the notion that those who govern should so because of merit and not inherited status, setting in motion the creation of the imperial examinations and bureaucracies open only to those who passed tests.
Burbank, Jane and Cooper, Frederick. (2010). Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12708-5.
Kazin, Michael, Edwards, Rebecca, and Rothman, Adam. (2010). The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History Volume 2. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12971-1.
Kett, Joseph F. Merit: The History of a Founding Ideal From the American Revolution to the Twenty-First Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0801451225
Schwarz, Bill. (1996). The expansion of England: race, ethnicity and cultural history. Psychology Pres. ISBN 0-415-06025-7.
Khen Lampert, Meritocratic Education and Social Worthlessness, Palgrave-Macmillan, UK, 2012-12-24; ISBN 1137324880
