Gelao languages

Gelao
Kláo
Native to	China, Vietnam
Region	Western Guizhou, Wenshan Prefecture in Yunnan, Longlin County in Guangxi, China; Hà Giang Province in Vietnam
Native speakers	7,900 (2008)
Language family	Kra–Dai Kra Ge–Chi Gelao
Dialects	Vandu A'ou, Mulao Hagei (Hakhi) Duoluo (Tolo) Qau (Gao)
Language codes
ISO 639-3	gio (deprecated)
Glottolog	gela1265

Gelao (autonym: Kláo, Chinese: 仡佬 Gēlǎo, Vietnamese: Cờ Lao) is a Kra language in the Kra–Dai language family. It is spoken by the Gelao people in southern China and northern Vietnam. Despite an ethnic population of 580,000 (2000 census of China), only a few thousand still speak Gelao in China. Estimates run from 3,000 in China by Li in 1999, of which 500 are monolinguals, to 7,900 by Edmondson in 2008. Edmondson (2002) estimates that the three Gelao varieties of Vietnam have only about 350 speakers altogether.

External relationships

Like Buyang, another Kra language, Gelao contains many words which are likely to be Austronesian cognates. (See Austro-Tai languages.)

As noted by Li and Zhou (1999), Gelao shares much vocabulary with the Hlai and Ong Be languages, suggesting contact with Pre-Hlai speakers before their migration to Hainan.

Demographics

China

Zhang Jimin estimated a total of over 10,000 Gelao speakers in the early 1990s, while Li Jinfang places this number at 3,000 in 1999. Jerold A. Edmondson's 2008 estimate is 7,900 speakers. This number is rapidly declining, as the Gelao are intermarrying with the neighboring Han, Bouyei, and Miao. Many Gelao speakers can also speak Bouyei, Zhuang, or Miao, and nearly all can speak local varieties of Chinese. Among Gelao-speaking families, most middle-age Gelao have very limited speaking abilities for Gelao, while much of the younger generation cannot even understand the most simple words and phrases.

A divergent variety of Gelao known as Shuicheng Gelao 水城みずき仡佬语 (also known as Datie Gelao 打だ铁仡佬语; autonym: pu55 qau24) is spoken in Dongkou 洞口ほらぐち村むら, Houchang Township 猴场乡 and Datiezhai 打だ铁寨, Miluo Township 米まい箩乡, both located in Shuicheng County, Guizhou Province, China (Li & Yang 2016: 71). The Gelao of Datiezhai reported that they had migrated from Dongkou 4 generations ago. Li & Yang (2016) report that there are only 3 speakers of Shuicheng Gelao left.

The Mulao number 28,000 people, and are distributed in Majiang, Kaili, Huangping, Duyun, Weng'an, Fuquan, and other counties of southeastern Guizhou. The Mulao of Xuanwei and Jidong villages refer to themselves as the Mu, and in Longli village 龙里寨 they call themselves qa24 ɣo53. The Mulao speak a variety of Gelao, not the Mulam language of Guangxi, which is also called Mulao. Luo (1997) describes the two Mulao varieties of qa24 o53 (qa24 ɣo53) in Majiang County and lei35 wo33 in Kaili City. One dialect is represented by the datapoints of Bamaozhai 巴ともえ茅ちがや寨 and Madizhai 马碲寨 of Xuanwei District 宣せん威い区く, Majiang County (Luo 1997:105, 115), and the other by Bailazhai 白しろ腊寨, Lushan Town 炉ろ山やま镇, Kaili City (Luo 1997:189); the latter is also spoken in Dafengdong 大だい风洞, Pingliang 平良たいら, and Chong'anjiang 重じゅう安江やすえ. Mulao data from Majiang and Kaili are also given in Guizhou (1985).

The extinct Tuman language (土ど蛮语) of Sinan County, Guizhou was a variety of Gelao.

Hsiu (2017) reports a Wai Gelao (Chinese: 歪ひずみ仡佬语, "Crooked Gelao") language variety from Dingjiapo 丁ひのと家か坡, Mugang Village 木き杠ゆずりは村むら, Muyang Town 木き央ひさし镇, Funing County, Yunnan. One 83-year-old woman remembered a few kinship terms.

In Qingzhen City, A'ou Gelao is spoken in the following villages (Qingzhen 2004:25-30).

• Luohang village 落夯村むら
• Mahuang village 蚂蟥村むら, Wangzhuang Township 王おう庄しょう布ぬの依よ族ぞく苗なえ族ぞく乡
• Yinqiao village 银桥村むら, Weicheng Town 卫城镇
• Yangshan village 阳山村むら, Anliu Township 暗流あんりゅう乡

Zhou (2004) reports that there are no more than 6,000 Gelao speakers, making up only 1.2% of the total number of ethnic Gelao people. The following table, based on Zhou (2004:150–151), shows the number of Gelao speakers in each county as of the 1990s. All counties are in Guizhou province unless specified otherwise.

Demographics of Gelao speakers

County	Ethnic Gelao population	Number of Gelao speakers	Locations of ethnic Gelao
Renhuai City	4,347	Very few elderly speakers remaining	Townships of Maoba 茅ちがや坝 (including Yatang 哑塘), Changgang 长岗, Yun'an 云うん安やす, Zhongshu 中枢ちゅうすう, Luban 鲁班, Wuma 五ご马
Zunyi County	2,922	Few speakers in Pingzheng Township 平ひらた正せい乡	Mostly in Pingzheng 平ひら正せい乡, a few in Panshui 泮水乡
Jinsha County	1,584	Few elderly speakers in Hongzi Township 红梓乡
Dafang County	4,000+	50+ speakers in Pudi Township 普ひろし底そこ乡
Qianxi County	7,000+	50+ speakers in Shajing Township 沙すな井い乡	Also in Huashi 化石かせき and Yang'er 羊ひつじ耳みみ
Zhijin County	6,250	Only a few elderly speakers
Puding County	3,770	300	Townships of Maodong 猫ねこ洞ほら, Machang 马场, Mengzhou 猛もう舟ふね: 10+ villages
Anshun City	2,559	300	Villages of Dagelao 大だい仡佬, Heizhai 黑くろ寨, Wanzi 湾わん子こ寨, Heqiao 河かわ桥, Amian 阿おもね棉わた寨, etc.
Pingba County	2,311	500
Qingzhen City	3,679	Only a few elderly speakers
Guanling Buyei and Miao Autonomous County	6,405	500	20+ villages in 10+ townships: Hagei speakers in Ma'ao 麻あさ垇 (in Xinpu Township 新しん铺乡), Huoshitian 火ひ石田いしだ, Longtan 龙潭, Shaxin 沙すな心しん, etc.
Zhenning Buyei and Miao Autonomous County	1,555	300	Townships of Dingqi 丁ひのと旗き, Liuma 六ろく马, etc.
Qinglong County	501	300
Zhenfeng County	1,024	300
Shuicheng County	1,862	Only a few elderly speakers	Townships of Yingpan 营盘, Houchang 猴场, Miluo 米まい箩, Panlong 蟠わだかま龙, etc.
Liuzhi Special District	8,218	1,000+	Mostly in the township of Qingkou 箐口
Longlin Various Nationalities Autonomous County, Guangxi	-	200+
Malipo County, Yunnan	-	100+	Also in Funing (in Dingjiapo 丁ひのと家か坡), Guangnan, and Maguan Counties.

The Gelao people in the following counties do not speak any form of the Gelao language whatsoever, and have shifted entirely to Southwestern Mandarin.

Ethnic Gelao without knowledge of the Gelao language

County	Ethnic Gelao population
Wuchuan Gelao and Miao Autonomous County	145,989
Daozhen Gelao and Miao Autonomous County	112,025
Zheng'an County	31,706
Fenggang County	5,982
Yuqing County	4,347
Zunyi City	2,158
Shiqian County	97,500
Songtao County	-
Sinan County	-
Funing County, Yunnan	60

Vietnam

Main article: Vandu language

The most endangered variety, Red Gelao of Vietnam, is spoken by only about 50 people. Many speakers have shifted to Southwestern Mandarin or Hmong. The Red Gelao people, who call themselves the va35 ntɯ31, send brides back and forth among the villages of Na Khê and Bạch Đích (or Bìch Đich) in Yên Minh District, Hà Giang Province, Vietnam and another village in Fanpo, Malipo County, Yunnan, China (autonym: u33 wei55) in order to ensure the continual survival of their ethnic group. Edmondson (1998) reports that there are also Red Gelao people in Cán Tí, Quản Bạ District and Túng Sán, Hoàng Su Phì District who no longer speak any Gelao, and speak Hmong, Tay, or Vietnamese instead. Hoang (2013:12) reports that there also some Red Gelao in Vĩnh Hảo commune, Bắc Quang District who had moved from Túng Sán commune. However, the White Gelao of Phố La Village and Sính Lủng Village of Dồng Văn District still speak the White Gelao language.

Varieties

Gelao is not well documented, having only been studied by a few scholars such as Li Jinfang, Jerold A. Edmondson, Weera Ostapirat, and Zhang Jimin. The three varieties in Vietnam are not mutually intelligible, and three varieties in China may be distinct languages as well. Ethnologue classifies Gelao as four languages, perhaps as closely related to the two Lachi languages as they are to each other.

Ostapirat (2000), Edmondson (2008)

Ostapirat (2000) proposed three major subdivisions for Gelao, with a total of 17 varieties. The Central and Southwestern branches shares various phonological innovations, suggesting an initial split with the Northern branch. Some varieties cited are also from Jerold A. Edmondson (2008). Edmondson also proposes that Red Gelao of the China-Vietnam border may in fact constitute a separate primary branch of Gelao.

Central (Gao)

• Wanzi 弯子寨, Anshun 安やす顺, Guizhou (also spoken in Heizhai 黑くろ寨)
• Dagouchang 大だい狗いぬ场, Huolong 活かつ龙乡, Pingba 平ひら坝, Guizhou
• Xinzhai 新しん寨, Baiyan 白岩しらいわ乡, Puding 普ひろし定じょう, Guizhou (also spoken in Wozi 窝子)
• Sanchong (三さん冲村), Longlin (隆りゅう林りん县), Guangxi
• Green Gelao of Hoàng Su Phì, Vietnam

Northern (Red Gelao)

• Qiaoshang 桥上, Xiongjiazhai 熊くま家か寨乡, Longchang 龙场区く, Zhijin 织金, Guizhou
• Bigong 比ひ贡, Dingqi 丁ひのと旗はた乡, Zhenning 镇宁, Guizhou
• Longli 龙里, Majiang 麻あさ江こう, Guizhou (Zhang calls this dialect Mulao 木き佬; autonym: qa23 ɣo53 嘎窝); there are two dialects (Bo Wenze 2003):
  • Xiasi 下司げす (in Longlizhai 龙里寨, etc.) and Longshan 龙山 (in Bamaozhai 芭茅寨 of Fuxing 复兴村むら, Huangtuzhai 黄土おうど寨 of Wengpao 翁おう袍ほう村むら, Bailazhai 白しろ腊寨, etc.) of Majiang County
  • Lushan 炉ろ山やま, Chongbaizhai 重じゅう摆寨 of Dafengdong 大だい风洞 (autonym: lei35 wo33 类窝), and Pingliang 平良たいら of Kaili City; Chang'anjiang 长安江やすえ of Huangping County
• Longjia 龙家寨, Zhijin 织金, Guizhou

Southwestern (White and Green Gelao)

• Laozhai 老ろう寨, Malipo 麻あさ栗ぐり坡, Yunnan (related dialects spoken in Yueliangwan 月がつ亮あきら弯 of Yangwan township 杨万まん乡; Fengyan 峰ほう岩がん of Dongdu village 董ただし度ど村むら; Chongba 铳八 of Donggan 董ただし干ひ乡)
• Ban Ma Che, Đồng Văn, Hà Giang, Vietnam
• White Gelao of Hà Giang Province: Đồng Vǎn, Hoàng Su Phì, Quản Bạ, and Mèo Vạc districts
• Red Gelao of Fanpo (翻こぼし坡), Malipo (麻あさ栗ぐり坡县), Yunnan (?)
• Moji 摩ま/磨すり/么基, Longlin 隆りゅう林りん, Guangxi in 上じょう冲 Shangchong and 下か冲 Xiachong (< 400 speakers; near Dashuijing 大だい水井みずい; related dialects in Wantao 弯桃 and Zhe'ai 者しゃ艾もぐさ of Yancha 岩がん茶ちゃ乡)
• Niupo 牛うし坡, Liuzhi 六ろく枝えだ, Guizhou (most populous; also spoken in Machang 马场镇 of Puding 普ひろし定てい县 and Agong 阿おもね弓ゆみ镇 of Zhijin 织金县; Judu 居い都と, Yanjiao 岩がん脚あし, Houzitian 猴子田た, Langjiaba 郞ろう家か坝, and Duojiao 堕脚 of Liuzhi 六ろく枝えだ)
• Datiezhai 打だ铁寨, Shuicheng 水城みずき, Guizhou (also spoken in Gaoshi 高石たかいし and Miluo 米まい箩)
• Dingyinshao 定てい银哨, Zhenning 镇宁, Guizhou
• Pudi 普ひろし底そこ, Dafang 大方おおかた, Guizhou (also spoken in Hongfeng 红丰村むら)
• Jianshan 尖山せんざん, Zunyi 遵义, Guizhou (also spoken in Pingzheng 平たいら正ただし, Zunyi along with Red and Green Gelao; fewer than 500 speakers)
• Qinglong 青あお龙, Zunyi 遵义, Guizhou
• Sanchong 三さん冲村, Longlin 隆りゅう林りん, Guangxi (grouped as Central by Shen Yumay and Jerold A. Edmondson)

Zhang (1993)

Zhang Jimin (1993) recognizes the following subdivisions of Gelao.

• Central 黔中方言ほうげん (10,000 speakers)
  • Dagouchang subdialect 平ひら坝县大だい狗いぬ场土语: spoken in Wanzi 弯子 and Heizhai 黑くろ寨 of Anshun City 安やす顺县; and Dagouchang 大だい狗いぬ场 and Wangzhai 王おう寨 of Pingba County 平ひら坝县 (autonyms: klɑu55 in Anshun; lɑu55 or pɯ55 lɑu55 in Pingba).
  • Xinzhai subdialect 普ひろし定てい县新寨土语: spoken in Xinzhai 新しん寨, Wozi 窝子, Changchong 长冲, and Weiqi 未み七なな villages in Baiyan District 白岩しらいわ区く, Puding District 普ひろし定てい县 (autonym: qɑu13).
  • Xiongzhai subdialect 织金熊ぐま寨土语: spoken in Qiaoshang Village 桥上村むら, Xiongjiazhai Township 熊ぐま家か寨乡, Longchang District 龙场区く, Zhijin County 织金县.
• North-Central 黔中北方ほっぽう言ごと (14,000 speakers)
  • Subdialect 1: spoken in Yatang 亚塘, Maoba District 茅ちがや坝区, Renhuai City 仁じん怀县; and Shanbeihou Village 山やま背せ后きさき村むら, Liangshui Township 凉水, Qinglong County; and Sanchong 三さん冲, Longlin County 隆りゅう林りん县, Guangxi (autonym: hɑ53 ke53). Also spoken by the Green Gelao 青あお仡佬 of Yangliu Village 杨柳村むら, Renhuai City 仁じん怀县 (autonym: pu55 hɑ55 kei53).
  • Subdialect 2: spoken by the Red Gelao 红仡佬 of Banliwan 板いた栗ぐり湾わん, Maoba District 茅ちがや坝区, Renhuai City 仁じん怀县; and some villages of Pingzheng Township 平ひらた正せい乡, Zunyi County 遵义县 (autonym: pu55 mu33 hen55, where mu33 hen55 means 'people'), including in Tianba 田た坝, Heijiaoyan 黑くろ脚あし岩がん, Pingzheng Township.
• Southwestern 黔西南せいなん方言ほうげん (12,000 speakers)
  • Niupo subdialect 六枝牛破土语: spoken in Duoque 堕脚, Houzitian 猴子田た, and Langjiaba 郎ろう家か坝 of Liuzhi Special District 六ろく枝えだ特区とっく; Shangguan 上じょう关 and Xiaguan 下か关 in Yingpan Town 营盘镇, Machang District 马场区く, Puding County 普ひろし定てい县 (elderly rememberers only); some villages in Agong District 阿おもね弓ゆみ区く, Zhijin County 织金县.
  • Moji subdialect 隆りゅう林りん么基土ど语: spoken in Dashuijing 大だい水井みずい, Longlin County 隆りゅう林りん县, Guangxi and other nearby villages. 400 speakers.
  • Laozhai subdialect 麻あさ栗ぐり坡县老ろう寨土语: spoken in Laozhai 老ろう寨 and Yueliangwan 月がつ亮あきら湾わん in Tiechang District 铁厂区く, Malipo County 麻あさ栗ぐり坡县
  • Datiezhai subdialect 水城みずき大だい铁寨土ど语: spoken in Gaoshi Township 高だか石せき乡, Yangmei District 杨梅区く and Ega Township 俄にわか嘎乡, Miluo District 米まい箩区, Shuicheng County 水城みずき特区とっく (elderly rememberers only).
  • Jianshan subdialect 遵义尖山せんざん土ど语: spoken in Jianshan 尖山せんざん, Pingzheng Township 平ひらた正せい乡, Zunyi County 遵义县. Under 500 speakers.
• Western 黔西方言ほうげん (15,000 speakers)
  • Pudi subdialect 大方おおがた县普底土そこつち语: spoken in Hongfeng Village 红丰村むら, Pudi Township 普ひろし底そこ乡, Dafang County (autonym: pu55 ɣɯ55); Lannigou 滥泥沟, Shajing Township 沙すな井い乡, Qianxi County; a few villages in Daguan District 大だい观区, Qianxi County; Dazhai 大だい寨 and Gaokanzhai 高だか坎寨 in Fenghuang Village 凤凰村むら, Xinfa Township 新しん发乡, Qingzhen City; Maixiang 麦むぎ巷ちまた and Houzhai 后きさき寨 townships, Qingzhen City
  • Bigong subdialect 镇宁比ひ贡土语: spoken in Bigong Village 比ひ贡村 and Maocao 茅ちがや草そう in Mafang Township 新しん房ぼう乡, Anxi District 安西あんざい区く, Zhenning County 镇宁县 (autonym: zəɯ35)

Bradley (2007), He (1983)

The Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages (2007), based on information from He (1983), groups Gelao into five subdivisions.

• Hakhi (哈给 Hagei, ha53 kei33, Green Gelao): west-central Guizhou, western Guangxi, southeastern Yunnan, northern Vietnam - including Yangliu (杨柳) variety in Renhuai County; southwestern Gelao of Sanchong (三さん冲) and Qinglong (青あお龙). Hagei varieties are also spoken in Ma'ao (麻あさ凹村), Guanling County (关岭县), Pomao (坡帽) in Zhenfeng County (贞丰县), and Pingzheng Gelao Village (平たいら正ただし仡佬族ぞく乡), Zunyi (遵义). Estimated by Jiashan He (1983) at 1,700 speakers. He (1983) also lists Anliang 安良やすら and Taiyang 太ふとし阳 of Renhuai 仁じん怀县, Huajiangzhen 花江はなえ镇 and Ma'ao 麻あさ垇 of Zhenning 镇宁县, Dingying 顶营 of Guanling 关岭县, Maixiang 麦むぎ巷ちまた near Qingzhen 清きよし镇, and Liangshuiying 凉水营 of Qinglong 晴はれ隆たかし县 as Hagei-speaking places.
• Tolo (多た罗 Duoluo, to31 ʔlo5, White Gelao): west-central Guizhou, western Guangxi, southeastern Yunnan, northern Vietnam; all other southwestern Gelao varieties. The Niupo variety is also spoken in Machang village (马场镇), Puding County (普ひろし定てい县), Anshun, as well as Agong village (阿おもね弓ゆみ镇), Zhijin County (织金县), Bijie. The Datiezhai variety is spoken in Gaoshi (高石たかいし) of Shuicheng (水城みずき) and Miluo (米べい箩) of Shuicheng (水城みずき). Estimated by Jiashan He (1983) at 1,200 speakers.
• A-uo (阿おもね欧おう A'ou/Ao, Red Gelao): west-central Guizhou, western Guangxi, southeastern Yunnan, northern Vietnam - including Banli (板いた栗ぐり湾わん) variety in Renhuai County; all northern Gelao varieties, as well as southwestern Gelao of Puding County (普ひろし定てい县) and Maocaozhai (茅かや草くさ寨), Zhijin County (织金县). Estimated by Jiashan He (1983) at 1,500 speakers. He (1983) also lists Shawo 沙すな窝, Xinkaitian 新しん开田, Lannigou 滥泥沟 (all in Qianxi 黔西县) as A'ou-speaking places.
• Aqao (稿こう Gao): west-central Guizhou; all central Gelao varieties. Estimated by Jiashan He (1983) at 2,000 speakers. He (1983) also listed Dongkou 洞口ほらぐち of Shuicheng 水城みずき县 and Niudong 牛洞うしぼら of Zhijin 织金县 as Gao-speaking places.
• Qaw: Gulin County (古こ蔺县), Sichuan; mostly unattested. This dialect is spoken by the Yi (羿人), who are the least-known Gelao subgroup.

The most extensively studied varieties are the Wanzi and Zhenfeng dialects, while the most endangered one is Red Gelao.

Zhou (2004)

Zhou (2004) lists four dialects of Gelao.

• Hagei (哈给): Autonyms include pu42 ha35 kei42 (布ぬの哈给) and pu55 mu33 hen55 (布目ぬのめ亨とおる). Primarily spoken in Renhuai, Zhenning, Guanling, Qinglong, Zhenfeng, and Longlin Counties.
  • Pomao 坡帽村むら, Zhenfeng 贞丰县
• Duoluo (多た罗): Autonyms include to31ʔ lo35 and tə31ʔ lɯ33. Primarily spoken in Liuzhi District, Puding, Longlin, and Malipo Counties.
  • Qingkou 箐口彝つね族ぞく仡佬族ぞく布ぬの依よ族ぞく乡, Liuzhi 六ろく枝えだ特区とっく
  • Machang 马场寨, Puding (extinct)
  • Mengzhou 猛もう舟ふな村むら, Puding (extinct)
• Gao (稿こう): Autonyms include pəɯ55 klɑu55, pəu35 qɑu35 (in Dongkou 垌口村むら, Houchang Township 猴场乡), and pəu35 lɑu31. Primarily spoken in Pingba, Anshun, Puding, and Shuicheng Counties. Its 4 dialects are Dagouchang 大だい狗いぬ场 of Pingba, Xinzhai 新しん寨 of Puding, Dongkou 洞口ほらぐち of Shuicheng, and Xiongzhai 熊ぐま寨 of Zhijin (extinct).
  • Dongkou 垌口村むら, Houchang 猴场乡, Shuicheng 水城みずき县
  • Shuangkeng 双そう坑あな村むら, Puding
• A'ou (阿おもね欧おう): Autonyms include a33 ɣeu33 (阿おもね欧おう), pu42 ɣeu33 (补欧, 补尔), and zəu31 le31 (柔やわら勒). Small pockets of speakers left in Zhenning, Dafang, and Qianxi Counties. Its three dialects are Bigong, Hongfeng, and Jianshan.
  • Shajing 沙すな井い苗なえ族ぞく彝つね族ぞく仡佬族ぞく乡: Tiele 铁乐村むら, Dengming 灯明とうみょう村むら, Huangni 黄き泥どろ村むら
  • Huashi 化石かせき, Qianxi
  • Yang'er 羊ひつじ儿, Qianxi
  • Longjia 龙家寨, Zhijin
  • Mengjia 猛もう架か, Puding
  • Weicheng 卫城镇, Qingzhen 清きよし镇市
  • Maixiang 麦むぎ巷ちまた村むら, Qingzhen 清きよし镇市
  • Pingzheng 平ひら正せい仡佬族ぞく乡 (some villages, including Shibanshang 石板せきばん上じょう, also called Jianshan 尖山せんざん)
  • Bayang 坝养, Puding (extinct)

Wei (2008)

Wei Mingying (2008:45) classifies the Gelao dialects as follows.

• Duoluo 多た罗
  • Vietnam White Gelao 越えつ白しろ
  • Yueliangwan 月がつ亮あきら湾わん, Laozhai 老ろう寨
  • Judu 居い都と, Moji 磨すり基もと, Wantao 湾わん桃もも
• Gao 稿こう
  • Dongkou 洞口ほらぐち, Datiezhai 打だ铁寨
  • Xinzhai 新しん寨
  • Wanzi 湾わん子こ, Dagouchang 大だい狗いぬ场
• Hagei 哈给
  • Sanchong 三さん冲, Shanbeihou 山やま背せ后きさき, Ma'ao 麻あさ垇, Pomao 坡帽, Yangliu 杨柳, Tianba 田た坝, Vietnam Green Gelao 越えつ青あお
• A'ou 阿おもね欧おう
  • Banliwan 板いた栗ぐり湾わん
  • Jianshan 尖山せんざん, Malipo Red Gelao 麻あさ红, Vietnam Red Gelao 越えつ红
  • Hongfeng 红丰, Maixiang 麦むぎ巷ちまた, Longjiazhai 龙家寨, Houzitian 猴子田た
  • Qiaoshang 桥上, Longli 龙里

Wei (2008: 39-40) classifies the A'ou (Red Gelao) dialects as follows.

A'ou 阿おもね欧おう方言ほうげん

• Lectal area 1 第だい一いち次じ方言ほうげん
  • Longjiazhai-Houzitian dialect 龙家寨、猴子田土たど语
• Lectal area 2 第だい二に次じ方言ほうげん
  • Qiaoshang dialect 桥上土ど语
  • Longli dialect 龙里土ど语
  • Bigong dialect 比ひ贡土语
• Lectal area 3 第だい三さん次じ方言ほうげん
  • Jianshan dialect 尖山せんざん土ど语
  • Banliwan dialect 板ばん栗ぐり湾わん土ど语

Wei (2008: 39) considers Houzitian 猴子田た Red Gelao to be most closely related to the Gelao variety of Longjiazhai 龙家寨, northern Zhijin County. There are only about 10 ethnic Gelao households in Houzitian. The Gelao speakers of "Donie" do31 ȵe31 village, Aga Township 阿おもね嘎乡, Shuicheng County 水城みずき县 originally migrated from Houzitian several decades ago; there are only a few elderly rememberers of that variety left.

Hsiu (2013, 2019)

Hsiu (2019) classifies the Gelao language dialects as follows.

• Gelao
  • Red Gelao
    • Vandu
      • Vietnam (Vandu) [50 speakers]
      • Malipo 麻あさ栗ぐり坡 (Uwei) [1 speaker]
      • Jianshan 尖山せんざん (Pumuhen) [extinct]
      • Banliwan 板いた栗ぐり湾わん [extinct?]
    • Dingjiapo 丁ちょう加か坡 (?) [extinct]
    • A'ou
      • Mulao [extinct]
        • Majiang 麻あさ江こう
        • Kaili 凯里
      • Yiren 羿人 [extinct]
      • Hongfeng cluster
        • Hongfeng 红丰 [30 speakers]
        • Qingzhen 清きよし镇 [nearly extinct]
        • Shajing 沙すな井い [extinct?]
      • Houzitian-Longjiazhai
        • Houzitian 猴子田でん [extinct?; 1 speaker as of 2012]
        • Longjiazhai 龙家寨 [extinct?]
      • Qiaoshang 桥上 [extinct?]
      • Bigong 比ひ贡 [30 speakers]
  • Core Gelao
    • Dongkou Gelao 洞口ほらぐち [3 speakers]
    • White Gelao (Telue)
      • Judu 居い都と [1,000+ speakers], Moji 磨すり基もと [5 speakers]
      • Malipo 麻あさ栗ぐり坡, Vietnam
    • Central Gelao
      • Hakei [1,000+ speakers]
        • Renhuai 仁じん怀, Pingzheng 平たいら正ただし
        • Guanling-Qinglong cluster
        • Pomao 坡帽
        • Sanchong 三さん冲
        • Vietnam
      • Qau [~1,000 speakers]
        • Wanzi 湾わん子こ, Dagouchang 大だい狗いぬ场
        • Xinzhai 新しん寨

An earlier classification by Hsiu (2013) classifies the Gelao dialects as follows.

• Gelao
  • Red Gelao
    • Border (“Vandu”)
      • Malipo 麻あさ栗ぐり坡 (Uwei)
      • Hà Giang: Vandu, Wandei
      • Renhuai: Banliwan 板いた栗ぐり湾わん, Jianshan 尖山せんざん
    • Core (Proto-Kra retroflex > spirant innovation)
      • Bigong 比ひ贡
      • Hongfeng 红丰, Shajing 沙すな井い
      • Houzitian 猴子田た
      • Zhijin: Qiaoshang 桥上, Longchang 龙场
      • Mulao
      • Yiren 羿人
  • White Gelao
    • Core
      • Judu 居い都と
      • Moji 磨すり基もと, Wantao 湾わん桃もも
    • Border: Yueliangwan 月つき亮あきら湾わん, Fengyan 峰みね岩いわ, Laozhai 老ろう寨, Vietnam White Gelao
  • Central Gelao
    • Hakei
      • Guanling-Qinglong cluster: Ma'ao 麻あさ垇, etc.
      • Pomao 坡帽
    • Qau
      • Dagouchang 大だい狗いぬ场
      • Wanzi 湾わん子こ
      • Xinzhai 新しん寨
      • Dongkou 洞口ほらぐち

Phonology

Many Gelao varieties, such as Telue and Vandu, have many uvular and prenasalized consonants. Many varieties also preserve consonant clusters that have been lost in most other related languages. These consonant clusters, such as pl, bl, pʰl, ml, mpl, vl, and kl, correspond regularly with consonants in Lachi, Mulao, Qabiao (Pubiao), Buyang, and various Kam–Tai languages. Gelao also shares many phonological features with Bouyei and other neighboring non-Kra languages.

Tones

Gelao varieties are tonal. Tones can include level tones (3 and 5), rising tones (13 and 35), and falling tones (31 and 53).

Comparisons

Sound correspondences between the Liuzhi (六ろく枝えだ) and Zhenfeng (贞丰) varieties include:

Liuzhi	Zhenfeng
pl	pj
pʰl	p
ml	m
mp	m
ntɕ	ȵ
ŋk	ŋ or k

Grammar

Like all of its surrounding languages, Gelao is a head-first, SVO language. Like Buyang, one unusual feature of Gelao is that negatives usually come at the end of a sentence. Reduplication is very common and is used for diminutive or repetitive purposes. Other common features include the use of serial verb constructions and compound nouns. Although numerals and classifiers precede nouns, adjectives (including demonstratives) always follow the noun. Function words, such as prepositions and auxiliary words, are often derived from verbs.

Like Buyang and Dong, Gelao retains many prefixes that have been lost in most other Kra–Dai languages. Zhang (1993:300) notes that the Moji (磨すり基もと) Longlin dialect of White Gelao makes especially extensive use of prefixing syllables before nouns, verbs, and adjectives. These prefixes are especially important for reconstruction purposes.

Many words in Gelao are derived from vernacular Southwest Mandarin Chinese. These loanwords are often used interchangeably with native Gelao words. There is also a highly rich system of classifiers.

Gelao also has a rich set of pronouns not attested in other Kra–Dai languages. There are also pronouns referring to one's household in particular.

Manuscripts

In Guizhou, there are several manuscripts that have word lists of Gelao varieties written using Chinese characters.

In 2009, a book allegedly written in a native Gelao script was found in Guizhou, China, but scholarship reveals it is certainly fake.

Further reading

• Zhang Jimin 张済民みん. 1993. Gelao yu yan jiu 仡佬语研究けんきゅう (A study of Gelao). Guiyang, China: Guizhou People's Press 贵州民族みんぞく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ.
• He Jiashan 贺嘉善ぜん. 1983. Gelao yu jian zhi 仡佬语简志こころざし (A sketch of Gelao). Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House 民族みんぞく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ.
• Ryūichi Kosaka, Guoyan Zhou, Jinfang Li. 仡央语言词汇集しゅう/Geyang yu yan ci hui ji. 贵阳市し/Guiyang, China: 贵州民族みんぞく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ/Guizhou min zu chu ban she, 1998.
• 李り锦芳/Li, Jinfang and 周しゅう国こく炎えん/Guoyan Zhou. 仡央语言探索たんさく/Geyang yu yan tan suo. Beijing, China: 中央ちゅうおう民族みんぞく大学だいがく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ/Zhong yang min zu da xue chu ban she, 1999.
• Li Jinfang [李り锦芳]. 2006. Studies on endangered languages in the Southwest China [西南せいなん地区ちく濒危语言调查研究けんきゅう]. Beijing: Minzu University [中央ちゅうおう民族みんぞく大学だいがく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ].
• Zhou Guoyan 周しゅう国こく炎えん. 2004. Gelao zu mu yu sheng tai yan jiu 仡佬族ぞく母語ぼご生せい态硏究けんきゅう (Studies on the linguistic ecology of the Gelao people). Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House 民族みんぞく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ.
• Ostapirat, Weera (2000). "Proto-Kra". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23 (1): 1-251
• Shen Yumay. 2003. Phonology of Sanchong Gelao. M.A. Thesis, University of Texas at Arlington.
• Edmondson, J. A., & Solnit, D. B. (1988). Comparative Kadai: linguistic studies beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics, no. 86. [Arlington, Tex.]: Summer Institute of Linguistics. ISBN 0-88312-066-6
• Diller, Anthony, Jerold A. Edmondson, and Yongxian Luo ed. The Tai–Kadai Languages. Routledge Language Family Series. Psychology Press, 2008.
• Li Xia; Li Jinfang; Luo Yongxian. 2014. A Grammar of Zoulei, Southwest China. Bern: Peter Lang AG, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-0343-1344-5
• Samarina, Irina Vladimirovna [Самарина, Ирина Владимировна]. 2011. The Gelao language: materials for a Kadai comparative dictionary [Языки гэлао: материалы к сопоставительному словарю кадайских языко]. Moscow: Academia. ISBN 9785874443917
• Luo Changmu [骆长木き]. 2009. Pingzheng Gelao language [平たいら正ただし仡佬语]. Pingzheng, Guizhou: Pingzheng Township Government. (Hagei Gelao dialect spoken in Tianba village 田た坝村, Pingzheng Township 平ひらた正せい仡佬族ぞく乡. Gelao transcribed in pinyin.)
• Chen Xing [陈兴]. 2013. Gelaoyu hanzi jinyin shidu daquan [仡佬语汉字じ近きん音おと识读大全たいぜん]. Beijing: Chinese History Press [中国ちゅうごく文ぶん史し出版しゅっぱん社しゃ]. ISBN 9787503439148
• Chen Zhengjun [陈正军]. 2003. Guizhou Mulaozu lishi wenhua [贵州仫佬族ぞく历史文化ぶんか]. Guiyang: Guizhou People's Press [贵州民族みんぞく出版しゅっぱん社しゃ].
• 仡佬语研究けんきゅう Archived 2018-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
• 新しん寨自然しぜん村むら调查 Archived 2018-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
• 仡佬族ぞく简史简志合あい编 Archived 2018-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
• 仡佬族ぞく Archived 2018-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
• 黔西布ぬの依よ族ぞく仡佬族ぞく满族百ひゃく年ねん Archived 2018-09-29 at the Wayback Machine

External links

• Gelao-language Swadesh vocabulary list of basic words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
• Recordings of various minority languages of northern Vietnam Archived 2012-02-07 at the Wayback Machine
• Bible recordings in Huangniu (黄き扭) Longlin Gelao (also known as Sanchong Gelao, Hagei, Green Gelao)
• ztgl.net
• Chinese papers on Gelao
• https://web.archive.org/web/20131202233535/http://cema.gov.vn/modules.php?name=Content&op=details&mid=497
• ELAR archive of Documentation of Two Gelao Varieties: Zou Lei and A Hou, South West China

Word lists

• ABVD: Gelao (Niupo) word list Archived 2017-04-13 at the Wayback Machine
• ABVD: Gelao (Judu) word list Archived 2017-04-13 at the Wayback Machine
• ABVD: Gelao (Hongfeng) word list
• ABVD: Gelao (Zhenfeng) word list Archived 2017-04-13 at the Wayback Machine
• ABVD: Gelao (Wanzi) word list Archived 2017-04-13 at the Wayback Machine
• ABVD: Gelao (Sanchong) word list Archived 2017-04-30 at the Wayback Machine