Taiwanese Mandarin
Taiwanese Mandarin | |||||||||||||||
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Native to | Taiwan | ||||||||||||||
Speakers | L1: 4.6 million (2017)[1] L2: 15 million[1] | ||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese characters | |||||||||||||||
Official status | |||||||||||||||
Official language in | Taiwan | ||||||||||||||
Regulated by | Ministry of Education | ||||||||||||||
Language codes | |||||||||||||||
ISO 639-3 | – | ||||||||||||||
ISO 639-6 | goyu (Guoyu) | ||||||||||||||
Glottolog | taib1240 | ||||||||||||||
IETF | cmn-TW | ||||||||||||||
![]() Percentage of Taiwanese aged 6 and above who spoke Mandarin at home in 2010; darker blue corresponds to a greater density of Mandarin speakers | |||||||||||||||
Chinese name | |||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | |||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | |||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | National language of Taiwan | ||||||||||||||
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Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | |||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | |||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | National language of the Republic of China | ||||||||||||||
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Taiwanese Mandarin, frequently referred to as Guoyu (Chinese:
Mandarin was not a prevalent spoken language in Taiwan before the mid-20th century. Early Chinese immigrants who settled in Taiwan before Japanese rule mainly spoke other varieties of Chinese languages, primarily Hakka and Hokkien. By contrast, Taiwanese indigenous peoples speak unrelated Austronesian languages. Japan annexed Taiwan in 1895 and governed the island as a colony for the next 50 years, introducing Japanese in education, government, and public life. With the defeat of Imperial Japan in World War II, Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China, ruled by the Kuomintang (KMT), which by 1950 had been expelled from the mainland by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The KMT promulgated Guoyu in Taiwan while suppressing non-Mandarin languages in the public sphere. At the same time, the People's Republic of China promoted the same national language as Putonghua (
Putonghua in mainland China and Guoyu in Taiwan are highly similar and derive from the same standard based on the phonology of the Beijing dialect of Mandarin Chinese and the grammar of written vernacular Chinese in the early 20th century.[3] Standard Guoyu pronunciations tend to be based on prescribed dictionaries of the period, whereas Standard Putonghua integrated colloquial Northern Mandarin pronunciations for some words. Notable characteristics of Guoyu as is commonly spoken in Taiwan include its somewhat different tonal qualities compared to Putonghua, the lack of the erhua phenomenon, and the lack of retroflex consonants (with zh-, ch-, sh- being pronounced like z-, c-, and s-) in most contexts. Guoyu also incorporates vocabulary from Hokkien and Japanese. Written Chinese in Taiwan generally uses traditional characters, in contrast to the simplified characters used on the mainland. Some grammatical differences also exist, often due to Hokkien influence. The two varieties of Mandarin have diverged in the decades since the political separation of Taiwan and the mainland.
Guoyu spoken in Taiwan exists on a spectrum, from the most formal, standardized variety to the least formal, with the heaviest Hokkien influence. On one end of the spectrum, there is Standard Guoyu (
Terms and definition
[edit]Chinese is not a single language but a group of languages in the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan family, which includes varieties such as Mandarin, Cantonese, and Hakka. They share a common ancestry and script, Chinese characters, and among Chinese speakers, they are popularly considered dialects (
Mandarin Chinese is a grouping of Chinese languages that includes at least eight subgroups, often also called dialects. In English, "Mandarin" can refer to any of these Mandarin dialects, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible.[6] However, the term is most commonly used to refer to Standard Chinese,[7][8] the prestige dialect.
Standard Chinese in mainland China is called Putonghua (
Guoyu exists on a continuum from the most standard, formal version of the language to the form most heavily influenced by Taiwanese Minnanyu.[14][15] The former variety can be called Standard Guoyu (
This article focuses on the features of both Standard Guoyu, particularly its relationship to Putonghua, as well as non-standard but widespread features of Mandarin in Taiwan, grouped under Taiwan Guoyu.[note 4]
History and usage
[edit]Large-scale Han Chinese settlement of Taiwan began in the 17th century by Hoklo immigrants from Fujian province who spoke Southern Min languages (predominantly Hokkien), and to a lesser extent, Hakka immigrants who spoke their respective language.[22] Taiwanese indigenous peoples already inhabited the island, speaking a variety of Austronesian languages unrelated to Chinese. In the centuries following Chinese settlement, the number of indigenous languages dropped significantly, with several going extinct, in part due to the process of sinicization.[23]
Official communications among the Han were done in Mandarin (
Under KMT rule
[edit]After the Republic of China under the Kuomintang (KMT) gained control of Taiwan in 1945, Mandarin was introduced as the official language and made compulsory in schools, although the local population rarely spoke it at the time.[25] Many who had fled the mainland after the defeat of the KMT by the Communists also spoke non-standard varieties of Mandarin, which may have influenced later colloquial pronunciations.[26] Wu Chinese dialects were also influential due to the relative power of KMT refugees from Wu-speaking Zhejiang, Chiang Kai-shek's home province.[27]
The Mandarin Promotion Council (now called National Languages Committee) was established in 1946 by Chief Executive Chen Yi to standardize and popularize the usage of Mandarin in Taiwan. The Kuomintang heavily discouraged the use of Southern Min and other non-Mandarin languages, portraying them as inferior,[28][29] and school children were punished for speaking their non-Mandarin native languages.[25] Guoyu was thus established as a lingua franca among the various groups in Taiwan at the expense of existing languages.[29][30]
Post-martial law
[edit]Following the end of martial law in 1987, language policy in the country underwent liberalization, but Guoyu remained the dominant language. Local languages were no longer proscribed in public discourse, mass media, and schools.[31] English and "mother tongue education" (
Mandarin is spoken fluently by the vast majority of the Taiwanese population, with the exception of some of the elderly population, who were educated under Japanese rule. In the capital of Taipei, where there is a high concentration of Mainlander descendants who do not natively speak Minnanyu, Mandarin is used in greater frequency and fluency than in other parts of Taiwan. The 2010 Taiwanese census found that in addition to Mandarin, Minnanyu was natively spoken by around 70% of the population, and Hakka by 15%.[34] A 2004 study found that Mandarin was spoken more fluently by Hakka and Taiwanese aboriginals than their respective mother tongues; Hoklo groups, on average, spoke better Minnanyu, but Hoklo under 50 years old still spoke significantly better Mandarin (with comparable levels of fluency to their usage of Minnanyu) than the elderly.[35][note 5] Overall, while both national and local levels of government have taken some measures to promote the use of non-Mandarin Chinese languages, younger generations generally prefer using Mandarin.[36]
Government statistics from 2020 found that 66% of Taiwanese residents use Guoyu as their primary language, and another 31% use it as a secondary language (32% used Minnanyu as their primary language, and 54% used it as a secondary language).[37] Guoyu is the primary language for over 80% of people in the northern areas of Taipei, Taoyuan, and Hsinchu.[37] Youth is correlated with use of Guoyu: in 2020, over two-thirds of Taiwanese over 65 used Minnanyu or Hakka as their primary language, compared with just 11% of 15–24-year-olds.[38]
Script
[edit]Guoyu employs traditional Chinese characters (which are also used in the two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau), rather than the simplified Chinese characters used in mainland China. Literate Taiwanese can generally understand a text in simplified characters.[39]
Shorthand characters
[edit]In practice, Taiwanese Mandarin users may write informal, shorthand characters (
Shorthand | Traditional | Notes |
---|---|---|
Identical to simplified | ||
Identical to simplified | ||
Identical to Japanese, cf. simplified 发 (fā) | ||
奌[41] | Differs from both simplified Chinese and Japanese | |
Identical to Japanese, cf. simplified 转 (zhuàn, zhuǎn) | ||
亇[42] | Differs from both simplified Chinese 个 (gè) and Japanese 箇 or katakana ケ | |
Identical to Japanese, cf. simplified 对 (duì) | ||
歺[43] | 餐 | 餐 is standard simplified as well. 歺 is formally a variant of the unrelated 歹 dǎi but is identical to the short-lived second-round simplification version of 餐.[44] (cān) |
咡[42] | 聽 | Unlike simplified 听, 咡 retains the radical for 'ear' ( |
In informal writing, Guoyu speakers may replace possessive particles
Braille
[edit]Taiwanese braille is similar to Mainland Chinese braille, though several sounds are represented by different patterns. Both systems represent the sounds of the language (as do Pinyin and Zhuyin), not Chinese characters themselves.[48]
Transliteration
[edit]Zhuyin Fuhao
[edit]While pinyin is used in applications such as in signage, most Guoyu users learn phonetics through the Zhuyin Fuhao (
Romanization
[edit]![A green street sign for 軍校路, romanized as Jyunsiao Rd.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Road_name_sign_of_Lane_782%2C_Jyunsiao_Road%2C_Nanzih_20130301.jpg/220px-Road_name_sign_of_Lane_782%2C_Jyunsiao_Road%2C_Nanzih_20130301.jpg)
Chinese language romanization in Taiwan somewhat differs from on the mainland, where Hanyu Pinyin is the official standard.[50] A competing system, Tongyong Pinyin, was formally revealed in 1998 with the support of the mayor of Taipei Chen Shuibian.[53] In 1999, however, the Legislative Yuan endorsed a slightly modified version of Hanyu Pinyin, creating parallel romanization schemes along largely partisan lines, with Kuomintang-supporting areas using Hanyu Pinyin, and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) areas using Tongyong Pinyin.[53] In 2002, the Taiwanese government led by the DPP promulgated the use of Tongyong Pinyin as the country's preferred system, but this was formally abandoned in 2009 in favor of Hanyu Pinyin.[54]
In addition, various other historical romanization systems also exist across the island, with multiple systems sometimes existing in the same locality. Following the defeat of the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War and their subsequent retreat to Taiwan in 1945, little emphasis was placed on the romanization of Chinese characters, with the Wade-Giles system used as the default. It is still widely used for transcribing people's legal names today.[50] The Gwoyeu Romatzyh method, invented in 1928, also was in use in Taiwan during this time period, albeit to a lesser extent.[55] In 1984, Taiwan's Ministry of Education began revising the Gwoyeu Romatzyh method out of concern that Hanyu Pinyin was gaining prominence internationally. Ultimately, a revised version of Gwoyeu Romatzyh was released in 1986,[50] which was called Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II. However, this system was not widely adopted.[56]
Phonology
[edit]Standard Guoyu
[edit]Like Putonghua, both Standard and Taiwan Guoyu are tonal. Pronunciation of many individual characters differs in the standards prescribed by language authorities in Taipei and Beijing. Mainland authorities tended to adopt pronunciations popular in Northern Mandarin areas, whereas Taiwanese authorities prefer traditional pronunciations recorded in dictionaries from the 1930s and 1940s.[57] Some examples of differences are given later in this section.
These character-level differences notwithstanding, Standard Guoyu pronunciation is largely identical to Putonghua, but with two major systematic differences (also true of Taiwan Guoyu):
- Erhua, the rhotacization of certain morphemes with the suffix -
兒 -er, is very rare in Guoyu[26] (and very common in Beijing Putonghua[58]). - The "neutral tone" (
輕 聲 qīngshēng) does not occur as often, so final syllables generally retain their tone (e.g.,但 是 dànshì,先生 xiānshēng).[59]- This tendency to retain original tone is not present in words ending noun suffixes such as -
子 -zi or -頭 -tou; Guoyu speakers would not pronounce 孩子 as *háizǐ.
- This tendency to retain original tone is not present in words ending noun suffixes such as -
In addition, two other phenomena, while nonstandard, are extremely common across all Mandarin speakers in Taiwan, even the highly educated:[26]
- The retroflex sounds zh- [ʈ͡ʂ], ch- [ʈ͡ʂʰ], and sh- [ʂ] merge into the alveolar consonants (z- [t͡s], c- [t͡sʰ], s- [s], respectively).
- The finals -ing [iŋ] and -eng [əŋ] have largely merged into -in [in] and -en [ən], respectively.
Taiwan Guoyu
[edit]Taiwan Guoyu pronunciation is strongly influenced by Minnanyu. This is especially prominent in areas where Minnanyu is common, namely, in Central and Southern Taiwan. Many, though not all, of the phonological differences between Taiwan Guoyu and Putonghua can be attributed to the influence of Minnanyu.
Notable phonological features of Taiwan Guoyu include:[note 6]
- In addition to the merger of retroflex sounds into the alveolar consonants mentioned above, utterances in Taiwan Guoyu may feature retroflexes (in pinyin, zh-, ch-, sh-, and r-) realized as postalveolar consonants: [ʈʂ] to [dʒ], [ʈʂʰ] to [ʃ], [ʂ] to [ɹ̠̊˔],[60] and [ʐ] to [ɹ]. This phenomenon is not unique to Taiwan and can be found in Mandarin dialects across southern China as well as parts of northern China.[61][failed verification]
- The ability to produce retroflex sounds is considered a hallmark of "good" Mandarin (i.e. Standard Guoyu); some speakers may hypercorrect to pronounce alveolar consonants as their retroflex counterparts when attempting to speak "proper" Guoyu.[62][63]
- The initial f- becomes a voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ], closer to a light 'h' in standard English (for example,
反 fǎn →緩 huǎn).[64] - The syllable written as eng ([əŋ]) after labials (in pinyin, b-, f-, m-, p- and w-) is pronounced ong ([o̞ŋ]).[65] Thus,
風 fēng may be pronounced as fōng. - The semivowel /w/ may change, rendering e.g. the surname
翁 Wēng as [ʋəŋ] rather than [wəŋ]. The deletion of /w/ also happens in colloquial Putonghua, but less frequently.[66] - The initials n- and l- are sometimes interchangeable, particularly preceding nasal finals (i.e. -n, -ng).[10] Thus,
男 nán may be pronounced lán. - The nasal finals -n and -ng tend to merge,[67] so words like
爭 zhēng and真 zhēn may become homophones. - The endings -uo, -ou, and -e (when it represents a close-mid back unrounded vowel [ɤ] like in
喝 hē) shift to a mid central vowel [ə] or merge into the mid back rounded vowel -o [o̞].[68] - The close front rounded vowel in words such as
雨 yǔ become unrounded, transforming into yǐ.[69] - The diphthong -ei [ei] and the triphthong -ui [uei] are monophthongized into [e].[68]
Reduction
[edit]The non-standard Taiwanese Guoyu tends to exhibit frequent, informal elision and cluster reduction when spoken.[70] For example, 這
Often the reduction involves the removal of initials in compound words, such as dropping the t in
Tone quality
[edit]Like all varieties of Mandarin, Guoyu is a tonal language. Putonghua as spoken in the mainland has five tones, including the neutral tone.[75] Tones in Guoyu differ somewhat in pitch and contour.
Research suggests that speakers of Guoyu articulate the second and third tones differently from the standards of Beijing Mandarin.[17] The precise nature of the tonal differences is not well attested, however, as relevant studies often lack a sufficiently large variety of speakers.[76] Tones may vary based on age, gender, and other sociolinguistic factors and may not even be consistent across every utterance by an individual.[77]
In general, for Guoyu speakers, the second tone does not rise as high in its pitch, according to Jeroen Wiedenhof,[78][79] and the third tone does not "dip" back up from the low, creaky voice range.[79] Overall, Guoyu speakers may exhibit a lower and more narrow pitch range than speakers of the Mandarin of Beijing.[80] Acoustic analysis of 33 Mandarin speakers from Taiwan in 2008 also found that for many speakers, the second tone tends to have a dipping contour more akin to that of the prescriptive third tone.[77]
Standard pronunciations compared to Putonghua
[edit]In addition to differences in elision and influence from Minnanyu, which are not features that are codified in the standard Guoyu, there are differences in pronunciation that arise from conflicting official standards in Taiwan and the mainland.
Quantification of the extent of pronunciation differences between Guoyu and Putonghua varies. Estimates from graduate-level research include a 2008 study based on the 7,000 characters in the List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese, which found approximately 18% differed between Guoyu and Putonghua, and 13% for the 3,500 most commonly used characters.[81] A 1992 study, however, found differences in 22.5% of the 3,500 most common characters.[82]
Much of the difference can be traced to the preferences of linguistic authorities on the two sides; the mainland standard prefers popular pronunciations in northern areas, whereas the Taiwanese standard prefers those documented in dictionaries in the 1930s and 1940s.[57] The Taiwanese formal standards may not always reflect actual pronunciations commonly used by actual Taiwanese speakers of Guoyu.[note 7]
The following is a table of relatively common characters pronounced differently in Guoyu and Putonghua in most or all contexts (Guoyu/Putonghua):[84]
|
|
|
|
Note that many of the above include tonal differences where a first tone in Putonghua is pronounced second tone in Guoyu. Some pronunciation differences may only appear in certain words. The following is a list of examples of such differences (Guoyu/Putonghua):
和 'and' — hé, hàn / hé. In Guoyu, the character may be read as hàn when used as a conjunction, whereas it is always read hé in Putonghua. This pronunciation does not apply in contexts outside of和 as a conjunction, e.g. compound words like和平 hépíng 'peace'.[85]暴露 'to expose' — pùlù / bàolù. The pronunciation bào is used in all other contexts in Guoyu.[86]質量 (质量) 'mass; quality' — zhíliàng / zhìliàng.質 is pronounced zhí in most contexts in Guoyu, except in select words like人質 rénzhì 'hostage' or質 押 zhìyā 'to pawn'.[87] Zhíliàng means 'mass' in both Guoyu and Putonghua, but for Guoyu speakers it does not also mean 'quality' (instead preferring品質 pǐnzhí for this meaning).[88]從容 (从容) 'unhurried, calm' — cōngróng / cóngróng.從 cóng is only pronounced cōng in this specific word in Guoyu.[89]口 吃 'stutter' — kǒují / kǒuchī.吃 is only read jí when it means 'to stammer' (as opposed to 'to eat', the most common meaning).[90]
Vocabulary differences from mainland Putonghua
[edit]Guoyu and Putonghua share a large majority of their vocabulary, but significant differences do exist.[note 9] The lexical divergence of Guoyu from Putonghua is the result of several factors, including the prolonged political separation of the mainland and Taiwan, the influence of Imperial Japanese rule on Taiwan until 1945, and the influence of Minnanyu.[91] The Cross Strait Common Usage Dictionary categorizes differences as "same word, different meaning" (
Same meaning, different word
[edit]The political separation of Taiwan and mainland China after the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 contributed to many differences in vocabulary. This is especially prominent in words and phrases which refer to things or concepts invented after the split; thus, modern scientific and technological terminology often differs greatly between Putonghua and Guoyu.[93] In both Guoyu and Putonghua, for example,
The differences may be prevalent enough to hinder communication between Guoyu and Putonghua speakers unfamiliar with each other's respective dialects.[93][96] For instance, Zhang (2000) selected four hundred core nouns from computer science and found that while 58% are identical in Standard and Taiwanese Mandarin, 22% were "basically" or "entirely" different.[97]
As cross-strait relations began to improve in the early 21st century, direct interaction between mainland China and Taiwan increased, and some vocabulary began to merge, especially by means of the Internet.[98] For example, the words
English | Taiwan | Mainland China |
---|---|---|
Internet | 网络 | |
Briefcase | ||
Bento | 盒饭 | |
Software | 軟體 | 软件 |
Introduction, preamble | 引言 | 导语 |
To print |
Words may be formed from abbreviations in one form of Mandarin but not the other. For example, in Taiwan, bubble tea,
Same word, different meaning
[edit]Some identical terms have different meanings in Guoyu and Putonghua. There may be alternative synonyms which can be used unambiguously by speakers on both sides.
Term | Guoyu meaning | Putonghua meaning |
---|---|---|
oils, oil-based products in general | petroleum products | |
TV series | photo album | |
peanut[note 10] | potato[note 11] | |
bus | government or official vehicle | |
lover | spouse |
The same word carry different connotations or usage patterns in Guoyu and Putonghua, and may be polysemous in one form of Mandarin but not the other. For example,
Differing usage or preference
[edit]Guoyu and Putonghua speakers may also display strong preference for one of a set of synonyms. For example, both
Guoyu tends to preserve older lexical items that are less used in the mainland. In Taiwan, speakers may use a more traditional
Likewise, words with the same literal meaning in either dialect may differ in register. 而已 éryǐ 'that's all, only' is common both in spoken and written Guoyu, influenced by speech patterns in Minnanyu, but in Putonghua the word is largely confined to formal, written contexts.[112]
Preference for the expression of modality often differs among northern Mandarin speakers and Taiwanese, as evidenced by the selection of modal verbs. For example, Taiwanese Mandarin users strongly prefer
Words specific to Guoyu
[edit]Some words in Putonghua may not exist in Guoyu and vice versa. Authors of the Dictionary of Words Which Differ Across the Taiwan Strait (《两岸
Some of the vocabulary differences stem from different social and political conditions, which gave rise to concepts that were not shared between the mainland and Taiwan, e.g.
Particles
[edit]![A street in Taipei with several signs in Chinese. One sign reads 二哥の店, lit. 'Second Brother's Shop', using の instead of 的.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Taipei_street_signs.jpg/220px-Taipei_street_signs.jpg)
Modal particles convey modality, which can be understood as a speaker's attitude towards a given utterance (e.g. of necessity, possibility, or likelihood that the utterance is true).[115] Modal particles are common in Chinese languages and generally occur at the end of sentences, and so are commonly called sentence-final particles or utterance-final particles.[116]
Guoyu employs some modal particles that are rare in Putonghua. Some are entirely unique to spoken, colloquial Taiwan Guoyu, and identical particles may also have different meanings in Putonghua and Guoyu.[117] Conversely, particles that are common in Putonghua — particularly northern Putonghua, such as that spoken in Beijing — are very rare in Guoyu. Examples include
啦 lā is a very common modal particle in Guoyu, which also appears in Putonghua with less frequency and always as a contraction of
Wu (2006) argues lā is influenced by a similar la particle in Minnanyu.[121] (Unlike in Putonghua, Guoyu speakers will use lā immediately following le,[122] as seen in (a).)
- (a) Impatience or displeasure
-
睡 覺 了 啦!明天 還 要 上 課 耶! - Go to sleep already! [You] have to go to class tomorrow!
-
- (b) Suggestion or order
- A:
我 真 的 吃 飽了 ! I'm so full! - B:
不要 客氣 ,再 吃 一 碗 啦! Don't be so polite, have another bowl!
- A:
- (c) Rejection or refutation
- A:
他 那 麼早結婚 ,一定 是 懷 孕了。 He married so early, it has to be [because of] a pregnancy. - B:
不可能 啦。 There's no way.
- A:
Taiwan Guoyu has functionally adopted some particles from Minnanyu. For example, the particle hoⁿh[note 13] [hɔ̃ʔ] functions in Minnanyu as a particle indicating a question to which the speaker expects an affirmative answer (c.f. English "..., all right?" or "..., aren't you?").[124] Among other meanings, when used in Taiwan Guoyu utterances, it can indicate that the speaker wishes for an affirmative response,[124] or may mark an imperative.[125]
Loan words and transliteration
[edit]Loan words may differ between Putonghua and Guoyu. Different characters or methods may also be chosen for transliteration (phonetic or semantic), and the number of characters may differ. In some cases, words may be loaned as transliterations in one dialect but not the other. Generally, Guoyu tends to imitate the form of Han Chinese names when transliterating foreign persons' names.[126][note 14]
English | Guoyu, traditional characters | Putonghua, simplified |
---|---|---|
Punk music[127] | 龐克 | |
Reagan[126] | ||
Obama[126] | ||
Blog[100] | ||
Gundam[127] | ||
Mercedes-Benz[127] |
From Minnanyu
[edit]Guoyu has borrowed words from Minnanyu, such as
Whether these loans are pronounced with their Minnanyu or Guoyu reading varies. In general, as a loan becomes more commonly recognized, it is more likely to be read as Guoyu.[131] This may involve the transformation of characters into their Guoyu counterparts. For example, the Minnanyu
From Japanese
[edit]Japanese in the early 20th century had a significant influence on modern Chinese vocabulary. The Japanese language saw the proliferation of neologisms to describe concepts, and terms learned through contact with the West in the Meiji and Taishō eras.[138] Thus, the creation of words like
Guoyu was also further influenced by Japanese. As a result of Imperial Japan's 50-year rule over Taiwan until 1945, Minnanyu (and Hakka) borrowed extensively from Japanese,[140] and Guoyu in turn borrowed some of these words from Minnanyu, such that Japanese influence can be said to have come via Minnanyu.[9][141] For example, the Minnanyu word 摃龜 (Peh-oe-ji: kòngku; [kɔŋ˥˩ku˥˥]) 'to lose completely', which has been borrowed into Guoyu, originates from Japanese sukonku (スコンク, 'skunk'), with the same meaning.[142] Other examples of Guoyu loans from Japanese via Minnanyu include
In general, Japanese loanwords are more widespread in Guoyu than Putonghua.[144] Guoyu continues to borrow words from Japanese in the 21st century, especially among youth, for whom Japanese culture is particularly attractive.[145]
Grammar
[edit]The grammar of Guoyu is largely identical to Putonghua. As is the case with lexicon and phonology described above, salient grammatical differences from Putonghua often stem from the influence of Minnanyu.
Perfective 有 yǒu
[edit]To mark the perfect verbal aspect, Guoyu employs
In both Guoyu and Putonghua,
- (1) 你
有 沒 有 申請 簽證? ("Did you apply for a visa?") - (2) 你
有 申請 簽證沒 有 ? (Guoyu only)
Auxiliary verbs
[edit]Another example of the influence of Minnanyu grammar on Guoyu is the use of
"Are you hot?" | "I am (not) hot" | |
---|---|---|
Putonghua | 你 Nǐ rè bù ( (rè)? |
Wǒ bù rè. |
Guoyu | 你 Nǐ hùi bù hùi rè? |
Wǒ bù hùi rè. |
Minnanyu | 你 Lí ē joa̍h bô? |
The use of
Compound (separable) verbs
[edit]Speakers of Guoyu may frequently avoid splitting separable verbs, a category of verb + object compound words that are split in certain grammatical contexts in standard usage.[153] For example, the verb 幫忙 bāngmáng 'to help; to do a favor', is composed of bāng 'to help, assist' plus máng 'to be busy; a favor'. The word in Guoyu can take on a direct object without separation, which is ungrammatical in Putonghua:[108]
Notes
[edit]- ^ Commonly called Minnanyu (閩南
語 ; Mǐnnányǔ; Bân-lâm-gú), Southern Min, or Hokkien. - ^ Mainland Chinese who speak non-Mandarin varieties may still refer to Putonghua as Guoyu.[2]
- ^ The specific terms vary greatly among authors. Some authors use Taiwan Guoyu to refer to the general form of the language spoken in Taiwan, incorporating influence from mutually unintelligible Minnanyu but not necessarily representing the most non-standard form.[16] For example, Fon, Chiang & Cheung (2004) distinguish between everyday Taiwan Guoyu and the form heavily influenced by Minnanyu, which they call Taiwanese Guoyu.[17] English writers may refer to the least standard, most Minnanyu-influenced form as Taiwanese-accented Mandarin.[18]
- ^ Chinese Wikipedia maintains separate articles for the standard form of Guoyu (
中華民國 國語 ) and the more colloquial form influenced by Minnanyu (臺灣 國語 ). - ^ A standardized 5.00-scaled test of Mandarin ability was administered to participants. Among Minnanren (Hoklo) the mean was 4.81 for young (under 31 years old) participants, 4.61 for middle aged participants (31–50), and 3.24 for the elderly (>50). The mean score for mainland descendants as a whole was 4.90.
- ^ Note that not all of these features may be present in all speakers at all times.
- ^ For example, the Ministry of Education standards dictate that some words (e.g.
熱鬧 rènào,認識 rènshì,衣服 yīfú,力量 lìliàng) be pronounced with the second character in a neutral tone, in contrast to how most Taiwanese speakers of Mandarin actually say them.[83] - ^ This word means 'garbage'. Neither character generally appears independent of the other outside the context of this word.
- ^ Chinese Wikipedia maintains a more extensive table of vocabulary differences between Taiwan, Macau, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and mainland China.
- ^
花 生 huāshēng, the Putonghua word for peanut, is an acceptable synonym in Guoyu. - ^
馬鈴薯 (马铃薯 ; mǎlíngshǔ), another synonym for potato, is also used in both dialects. - ^
公共 汽車 (公共 汽车; gōnggòng qìchē; 'public vehicle') is an unambiguous term for bus in both dialects. - ^ The Ministry of Education gives the original character for hoⁿh as 乎,[123] a Classical Chinese particle.
- ^ Barack Obama is thus referred to as Ōubāmǎ
歐 巴 馬 as opposed to Àobāmǎ奥 巴 马 in the mainland. Ōu is a common Han surname, while Ào is not (see list of common Chinese surnames). - ^ Wu and Su (2014) give the example of "逗
熱鬧 " 'to join in the fun' in a 2014 Liberty Times headline. The Guoyu phrase is 凑熱鬧 còu rènào; the headline substituted the verb 凑 còu for the Minnanyu verb 逗 (dòu, read tàu in Minnanyu).[136] The native Minnanyu word is 逗鬧熱 (Pe̍h-ōe-jī: tàu‑lāu‑jia̍t) (also written 鬥鬧熱 )[137] - ^
袂 bē is alternatively written with the nonstandard,[150] which provides a clearer image of its grammatical function: it is a combination of a negator (勿) and
會 .
Citations
[edit]- ^ a b Chinese, Mandarin at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ Wiedenhof 2015, p. 5, "But even inside China, the term Guóyǔ remains in use among speakers of non-Mandarin Sinitic languages when they refer to Mandarin.".
- ^ Chen 1999, pp. 22–24.
- ^ See Mair for an overview of the terminology and debate: Mair, Victor H. (September 1991). "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic Terms". Sino-Platonic Papers (29). Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 13 March 2022.
- ^ DeFrancis 1984, p. 56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that, according to Chao, are as great as those between English and Dutch."
- ^ Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews 2018, pp. 241–42. "
- ^ Weng 2018, p. 613. "... without prior exposure, speakers of different Mandarin dialects often have considerable difficulty understanding each other's local vernacular... In some cases, mutual intelligibility is not guaranteed even if the Mandarin dialects concerned belong to the same group and are spoken within the same province."
- ^ Szeto 2019. "In common usage, 'Mandarin' or 'Mandarin Chinese' usually refers to China's standard spoken language. In fact, I would argue that this is the predominant meaning of the word."
- ^ a b Bradley 1991, p. 314.
- ^ a b Chen 1999, p. 48.
- ^ Her 2009, p. 377. 「
國語 :教育 部 依據 北京 話 所 頒定的 標準 語 ,英文 是 Standard Mandarin,其內涵與北京 話 相似 。但 只 是 死 的 人為 標準 ,並 非 活 的 語 言 。」 ["Guoyu: The standard language determined by the Ministry of Education based on the Beijing dialect, with which it is similar. It is called Standard Mandarin in English. It is a dead, artificial standard, and not a living language."] - ^ Sanders 1987, p. 2. "The first type of "Mandarin" to be recognized is what is called putonghua - --- on the Chinese mainland, guoyu in Taiwan, and huayu in Singapore. Outside of China, this (so-called) standard, official Mandarin corresponds to the language found in textbooks. What characterizes this language is grammatical underspecification, a lack of any native speakers, and very few truly fluent speakers."
- ^ Chung 2006b, p. 198. In the context of Taiwan specifically: "Beyond broadcasters and a minority of people who have rather idiosyncratically adopted textbook pronunciations in their own everyday speech, plus a few natives of Beijing and other mainlanders, however, textbook Mandarin [i.e. "the Beijing-based Mandarin taught in Taiwan schools"] exists mainly as an idealized language that is studied and exists in one's consciousness, but is seldom consistently practiced."
- ^ Fon, Chiang & Cheung 2004, p. 250; Khoo 2019, p. 221. 「"
若 將 華 語口 音 的 標準 與 否 視 為 一 個 連續 體 (continuum),標準 國語 就是在 這個連續 體 的 標準 端 ;另一 個 端點 ,也就是 不 標準 端 ,就是台灣 國語 了 。」["If we view a Mandarin accent and its standard quality as a continuum, Standard Guoyu is at the standard end, and the other end, that is, the nonstandard end, is Taiwan Guoyu."] - ^ Teng 2002, p. 230.
- ^ Shi & Deng 2006, p. 376. 「
標準 國語 "指 用 於正規 的 書面 語 言 以及電 視 廣 播中的 通用 語 ,……和 大陸 的 普通 話 基本 一致 。"台灣 國語 "指 在 台灣 三 十 歲 以下 至 少 受過高 中 教育 的 台灣 籍 和 大陸 籍 人士 所說 的 通用 語 ,也就是 因 受閩南 話 影響 而聲、韻 、調 以及詞 彙、句法 方面 與 標準 普通 話 產 生 某 些差異 的 語 言 。」 ["'Standard Guoyu' refers to the language used in formal writing and television broadcasts, which in essence is Northern Mandarin absent more extreme dialect elements and features ... largely identical to Putonghua. 'Taiwan Guoyu' is the common language spoken by Taiwanese people and Chinese mainland descendants in Taiwan under thirty who have received at least a high school education. The influence of Taiwanese has produced differences from standard Putonghua in onsets and rimes, tone, vocabulary, and syntax."] - ^ a b Fon, Chiang & Cheung 2004, p. 250.
- ^ Cheng 1985.
- ^ Shi & Deng 2006, p. 372–373.
- ^ Khoo 2019, p. 222.「
國語 運動 的 主要 目標 之 一就是推行標準國語,台灣 國語 也成為國 語 運動 積極 消 除 的 口 音 ……並 且也因 此被貼 上 負 面 的 標 籤 。……這種帶 有 台 語口 音 的 華 語 ,依然 經常 是 各種 演出 中 搞笑或 醜 化 角 色 的 素材 ,「台灣 國語 」根深 蒂固的 負 面 印象 可 見 一 斑 。」 ["One of the primary goals of the Guoyu Movement [Chinese Wikipedia:國語 運動 ] was the promotion of Standard Guoyu. The Taiwan Guoyu accent was actively eliminated by the Movement... and moreover acquired a negative label. ... This Mandarin with a Taiyu [Minnanyu] accent is frequently performed as the stuff of comedic or ugly roles, and from this we can see one aspect of the deep-seated negative image of Taiwan Guoyu."] - ^ Su 2006. "Taiwanese-accented Mandarin shares with Taiwanese the sociolinguistic meanings of backwardness and congeniality [and] is a highly stigmatized variety among Taiwanese speakers."
- ^ Scott & Tiun 2007, p. 54.
- ^ Zeitoun 1998, p. 51.
- ^ a b Scott & Tiun 2007, p. 55.
- ^ a b Scott & Tiun 2007, p. 57.
- ^ a b c Chen 1999, p. 47.
- ^ Cheng 1985, p. 354; Her 2009.
- ^ Su 2014, p. 61. "Until the 1980s, the Kuomintang administration heavily promoted the use of “Guoyu” and discouraged the use of other dialects, such as Min dialect and Kejia [Hakka] dialect, at times even considering them inferior."
- ^ a b Yeh, Chan & Cheng 2004, p. 76.
- ^ Teng 2002, p. 232.
- ^ Scott & Tiun 2007, p. 58.
- ^ Scott & Tiun 2007, p. 60.
- ^ Scott & Tiun 2007, p. 64.
- ^
年 人口 及住宅 普 查 [2010 Population and Household Census] (PDF) (Report) (in Chinese). Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics. September 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2022. - ^ Yeh, Chan & Cheng 2004, pp. 86–88.
- ^ Scott & Tiun 2007, pp. 59–60.
- ^ a b
年 人口 及住宅 普 查初步 統計 結果 [2021 Population and Residence Census Preliminary Statistics] (PDF) (Report) (in Chinese). Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics. 31 August 2021. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022. 「6歲 以上 本國 籍 常住 人口 計 2,178.6萬 人 ,主要 使用 語 言 為國 語 者 占 66.3%,閩南語 占 31.7%;主要 或 次 要 使用 國語 者 占 96.8%,閩南語 者 占 86.0%,客語 者 占 5.5%,原住民 族 語 者 占 1.1%。」 [There are 21,786,000 permanent resident nationals over the age of six. 66.3% primarily use Guoyu, and 31.7% Southern Min [i.e. Hokkien/Taiyu]. 96.8% use Guoyu either primarily or secondarily, 86.0% use Southern Min, 5.5% use Hakka, and 1.1% use aboriginal languages.] - ^ Lin, If (30 September 2021).
最新 普 查:全國 6成 常用 國語 ,而這6縣 市 主要 用 台 語 [Newest Census: 60% Nationally Use Guoyu Regularly, But These 6 Cities and Counties Use Taiyu].關 鍵 評論 網 [The News Lens] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 5 November 2022. Retrieved 5 November 2022. - ^ Wiedenhof 2015, p. 401.
- ^ Wang et al. 2015, p. 251.
- ^ a b c d Su, Dailun (12 April 2006b).
基 測 作文 俗體 字 不 扣分 [Basic Competence Test will not penalize nonstandard characters]. Apple Daily (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2020. - ^ a b c d Weng, Yunqian (19 April 2021). 聽寫
成 「咡」、點 寫 成 「奌」?網 揭「台 式 簡體」寫 法 超 特別 :原 來 不 只 我 這樣 [聽 written 咡 and點 written 奌? Internet Shows Super Unique 'Taiwanese Simplified Characters' - Turns Out It's Not Just Me!].網 路 溫度 計 [Daily View]. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022. - ^ He, Zewen (10 September 2019).
簡體字 破壞 中華 文化 ?最早 的 「漢字 簡化」,其實是 國民黨 提出 來 的 [Have Simplified Characters Destroyed Chinese Culture? The Earliest 'Simplification' was Actuall Proposed by the KMT].換 日 線 [Crossing]. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2022. - ^ 歺. 《
重 編 國語 辭典 修訂 本 》 [Recompiled Guoyu Dictionary, Revised Edition] (in Chinese). Taipei: Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. 2015. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^ Chung 2001, pp. 168.
- ^ Chung 2001, p. 169.
- ^ Hsieh & Hsu 2006, p. 63.
- ^ "Braille for Chinese". Omniglot. Archived from the original on 29 November 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
- ^ Huang 2019, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d Lin 2015, p. 199.
- ^ Wiedenhof 2015, p. 12.
- ^ Huang 2019, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b Lin 2015, p. 200.
- ^ Shih, Hsiu-chuan (18 September 2008). "Hanyu Pinyin to be standard system in 2009". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
- ^ Lin 2015, p. 199; Chiung 2001, p. 33.
- ^ Chiung 2001, p. 25.
- ^ a b Chen 1999, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Chen 1999, p. 39. "The Beijing dialect, particularly in its informal usage, is characterized by an abundance of rhotacization of the last category."
- ^ Kubler 1985, p. 161.
- ^ Chung 2006b, pp. 200–202.
- ^ Chung 2006b, pp. 197.
- ^ Kubler 1985, p. 159.
- ^ Chung 2006b, pp. 197–98.
- ^ Kubler 1985, p. 157.
- ^ Chen 1999, p. 48; Kubler 1985, p. 159.
- ^ Wiedenhof 2015, p. 46.
- ^ Hsu & Tse 2007; Bradley 1991, p. 315.
- ^ a b Kubler 1985, p. 160.
- ^ Kubler 1985, p. 160; Chen 1999, p. 47.
- ^ Chung 2006a; Cheng & Xu 2013.
- ^ a b Chung 2006a, p. 71.
- ^ Chung 2006a, pp. 75–77.
- ^ Shi & Deng 2006, pp. 376–78.
- ^ Sanders 2008, p. 98.
- ^ Wiedenhof 2015, pp. 12–16.
- ^ Sanders 2008, p. 88.
- ^ a b Sanders 2008, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Wiedenhof 2015, p. 55. "The second tone is rising as well as high. ... The feature 'high' appears to be on the wane in Taiwan, where a rise starting at a low pitch level is recognized as a second tone."
- ^ a b Fon, Chiang & Cheung 2004, pp. 250–51.
- ^ Fon & Chiang 1999, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Nan 2008, p. 65. “
在 《現代 漢語 常用 字 表 》3500字 中 ,讀音差異 的 有 444處 ,佔 12.7%。在 《現代 漢語 通用 字 表 》7000字 中 ,讀音差異 的 有 1284處 ,佔 18.3%。” ["Among the 7000 characters in List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese, 1284, or 18.3%, had different readings. Among the 3500 characters in the List of Frequently Used Characters in Modern Chinese, 444, or 12.7%, had different readings."] - ^ Chen 1999, pp. 46–47; Li 1992.
- ^
熱 「ㄋㄠˋ」改 「ㄋㄠ˙」教育 部 字典 被 網 罵 :演 古 裝 劇 ? ["'Rènào' to 'rènao'—Ministry of Education Dictionary criticized online: Are they pretending to be in some period piece?"]. ETtoday (in Chinese). 27 February 2018. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2021. - ^ Per the respective Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary entries in the Taiwanese Ministry of Education's dictionary website Archived 2017-09-24 at the Wayback Machine. Each character is present on the List of Most Frequently Used Characters in Modern Chinese (现代汉语
常用 字 表 ), also available on Wikisource in translation here. - ^
和 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture . 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^
暴露 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^
質 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^ Lu, Wei (20 February 2010).
詞 彙研究所 -質量 vs.品質 [Vocabulary Research Institute: Zhiliang vs. Pinzhi].中國時報 [China Times] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021. - ^
從 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^
吃 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^ a b Chen 1999, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Lists for each of the four categories can be found on the dictionary website here, accessed 24 December 2022, and archived here.
- ^ a b Yao 2014, p. 1650.
- ^
通過 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2023. - ^
透過 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2023. - ^ Zhang 2000, p. 38. ”
随 着 大 陆与台湾 、香港 、澳门 ...的 科技 交流 、商 贸活动的日 益 频繁,人 们越来 越 感 到 海峡 两岸计算机 名 词(以下 简称两岸名 词)的 差 异,已 成 为一个不小 的 障碍 ,影 响着正常 的 业务工作 。” ["With the growing frequency of scientific and technological exchange and commerce among the mainland and Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau ... people increasingly feel that the differences in computer terminology (hereafter referred to as cross-strait terms) on both sides of the Taiwan Strait have become a sizable hindrance affecting normal work."] - ^ Zhang 2000, p. 40. “
通 过分析 ,得 出 了 各 类名词的数量 及其比例 关系:完全 相 同名 词占总数58.25%,基本 相 同名 词占总数20%,基本 不 同名 词占总数10.25%,完全 不 同名 词占总数11.5%。” ["Through analysis [I] drew out the number and proportion of various nouns: identical nouns account for 58.25% of the total, basically identical nouns for 20% of the total, basically different nouns for 10.25% of the total, and entirely different nouns for 11.5% of the total."] - ^ a b c Li 2015, p. 344.
- ^ Chien, Amy Chang (22 September 2017). "项目"、"视频":
台湾 人 不 会 讲的中国 话 ['Xiangmu', 'Shipin': The Chinese that Taiwanese Can't Speak]. New York Times (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2021. - ^ a b
同 實 異名 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 2021-08-26. Retrieved 2021-08-26. - ^ Zhou & Zhou 2019, p. 212.
- ^ Zhou & Zhou 2019, p. 213.
- ^
油 品 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^
影 集 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^
土 豆 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 June 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^
公 車 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^
愛人 . 《兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^ a b Li 2015, p. 343.
- ^ a b Li 2015, p. 342.
- ^ a b 两岸词汇
存 差 异 对照交流 增 意 [Cross-straits vocabulary differences — Comparison and exchange gains interest]. Xinhua (in Chinese). 18 January 2016. Archived from the original on 22 August 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021. - ^ Wiedenhof 2015, p. 280.
- ^ Kubler 1985, p. 171.
- ^ Sanders 1992, p. 289.
- ^ 趴. 《
兩 岸 常用 詞 典 》 [Cross-Strait Common Vocabulary Dictionary] (in Chinese). Taipei: General Association of Chinese Culture. 2016. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^ Herrmann 2014.
- ^ Lin 2014, p. 2.
- ^ Lin 2014, pp. 3–5.
- ^ Wu 2006, p. 1.
- ^ Lin 2014, p. 122.
- ^ Wu 2006, pp. 24–26.
- ^ Wu 2006, p. 16.
- ^ Wu 2006, pp. 33.
- ^ "乎 Archived 2022-01-03 at the Wayback Machine", Taiwanese Minnan Dictionary 《
臺灣 閩南語 辭典 》, Taipei: Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. - ^ a b Wu 2006, p. 61.
- ^ Wu 2006, pp. 62–63.
- ^ a b c Wang, Yinquan (25 December 2012). 两岸四地外国专名翻译异同趣谈 [An Interesting Look at Foreign Proper Noun Transliteration in China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan]. China Daily. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
- ^ a b c Zhou & Zhou 2019, p. 215.
- ^ Chen 1999, p. 107.
- ^ Wu & Su 2014, pp. 240–241.
- ^ Wu & Su 2014, p. 241.
- ^ Wu & Su 2014, pp. 243.
- ^ Wu & Su 2014, pp. 243–244.
- ^
黑白 講 . 《重 編 國語 辭典 修訂 本 》 [Recompiled Guoyu Dictionary, Revised Edition] (in Chinese). Taipei: Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. 2015. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2022. - ^
烏 白 . 《臺灣 閩南語 常用 詞 辭典 》 [Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan] (in Chinese). Taipei: Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. 2011. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2022. - ^ Cook 2018, p. 14.
- ^ a b Wu & Su 2014, p. 240.
- ^ 鬥鬧
熱 . 《臺灣 閩南語 常用 詞 辭典 》 [Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan] (in Chinese). Taipei: Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. 2011. Archived from the original on 19 September 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022. - ^ Zhao 2006, pp. 307–311.
- ^ Zhao 2006, p. 312.
- ^ Yao 1992, pp. 335–37.
- ^ Hsieh & Hsu 2006, p. 53.
- ^ Yao 1992, pp. 337, 358–59.
- ^ Hsieh & Hsu 2006, p. 57.
- ^ Hsieh & Hsu 2006, p. 62.
- ^ Hsieh & Hsu 2006, pp. 63–66.
- ^ Tan 2012, p. 2.
- ^ Tan 2012, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Wiedenhof 2015, p. 214.
- ^ Yang 2007, pp. 117–119; Sanders 1992.
- ^
袂 . 《臺灣 閩南語 常用 詞 辭典 》 [Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan] (in Chinese). Taipei: Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2024. - ^ Sanders 1992, pp. 302–303.
- ^ Sanders 1992, p. 303.
- ^ Diao 2016.
- ^ Teng 2021, p. 22. 「
離合 詞 的 基本 屬性 是 不 及物動詞 ...當然 ,在 臺灣 已 經 有 些離合 詞 ,如:「幫忙」,傾向 於及物 用法 。因 為 仍不穩定,教材 中 仍以不 及物表現 為 規範 。 "A fundamental attribute of separable verbs is their intransivity ... of course, in Taiwan there are some separable verbs, such as bangmang, that tend to be transitive. As this [usage] is still unstable, the teaching materials still use the intransitive as the standard."
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