Appendix:Standard Mandarin Swadesh list

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This is a Swadesh list of words in Mandarin, compared with definitions in English.

Presentation

[edit]
For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.

American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.

List

[edit]

The list includes Pinyin and IPA transcription.

№EnglishMandarin
普通ふつう話ばなし／普通ふつう话 (pǔtōnghuà)
edit (207)		IPA
(key)
1I (1sg)我わが (wǒ)uɔ²¹⁴
2you (2sg)你 (nǐ) (informal), 您 (nín) (polite)ni²¹⁴, nin³⁵
3he, she, it (3sg)他た (tā), 她 (tā), 它 (tā)tʰa⁵⁵, tʰa⁵⁵, tʰa⁵⁵
4we (1pl)我わが們／我わが们 (wǒmen)uɔ²¹ mən⁰
5you (2pl)你們／你们 (nǐmen) (informal), 您 (nín) (polite)ni²¹ mən⁰, nin³⁵
6they (3pl)他た們／他た们 (tāmen)tʰa⁵⁵ mən⁰
7this這／这 (zhè, zhèi), 這個／这个 (zhège, zhèige)tʂɤ⁵¹, tʂei⁵¹, tʂɤ⁵¹ kə⁰, tʂei⁵¹ kə⁰
8that那な (nà, nèi), 那な個こ／那な个 (nàge, nèige)na⁵¹, nei⁵¹, na⁵¹ kə⁰, nei⁵¹ kə⁰
9here這裡／这里 (zhèli), 這兒／这儿 (zhèr) (Beijing accent)tʂɤ⁵¹ li⁰, tʂaɻ⁵¹
10there那な裡うら／那な里さと (nàli), 那な兒じ／那な儿 (nàr)na⁵¹ li⁰, naɻ⁵¹
11who誰だれ／谁 (shéi, shúi)ʂei³⁵, ʂuei³⁵
12what什麼いんも／什么 (shénme), 哪個／哪个 (nǎge) (which)ʂən³⁵ mə⁰, na²¹ kə⁰
13where哪裡／哪里 (nǎli), 哪兒／哪儿 (nǎr) (Beijing accent)na³⁵ li⁰, naɻ²¹⁴
14when什麼いんも時候じこう／什么时候 (shénmē shíhòu)ʂən³⁵ mə⁵⁵ ʂʐ³⁵ xou⁵¹
15how如何いか (rúhé) (formal), 怎麼／怎么 (zěnme) (informal), 怎樣／怎样 (zěnyàng) (in what way)ʐu³⁵ xɤ³⁵, tsən²¹ mə⁰, tsən²¹ iaŋ⁵¹
16not不ふ (bù) (is not, does not), 別べつ／别 (bié) (do not (imperative)), 沒ぼつ／没ぼつ (méi) (does not have, did not)pu⁵¹, piɛ³⁵, mei³⁵
17all全部ぜんぶ (quánbù) (all of it), 整せい (zhěng) (ex. all day), 所有しょゆう (suǒyǒu) (ex. all cars), 都と (dōu) (ex. they all see it), 一いち共ども (yīgòng) (ex. how many in all?)tɕʰyɛn³⁵ pu⁵¹, tʂɤŋ²¹⁴, suɔ³⁵ iou²¹⁴, tou⁵⁵, i³⁵ koŋ⁵¹
18many多おお (duō)tuɔ⁵⁵
19some一いち些 (yīxiē), 幾いく個こ／几个 (jǐge)ji⁵³ ɕiɛ⁵⁵, tɕi²¹ kə⁰
20few少すくな (shǎo)ʂɑu²¹⁴
21other其他 (qítā), 別べつ的てき／别的 (biéde)tɕʰi³⁵ tʰa⁵⁵, piɛ³⁵ tə⁰
22one一いち (yī)i⁵⁵
23two二に (èr) (not with measure words), 兩りょう／两 (liǎng) (only with measure words)ɑɻ⁵¹, liɑŋ²¹⁴
24three三さん (sān)san⁵⁵
25four四よん (sì)sɿ⁵¹
26five五ご (wǔ)u²¹⁴
27big大だい (dà)ta⁵¹
28long長なが／长 (cháng)tʂɑŋ³⁵
29wide寬ひろし／宽 (kuān)kʰuan⁵⁵
30thick厚あつ (hòu)xou⁵¹
31heavy重おも (zhòng)tʂoŋ⁵¹
32small小しょう (xiǎo)ɕiɑu²¹⁴
33short短たん (duǎn)tuan²¹⁴
34narrow窄 (zhǎi)tʂai²¹⁴
35thin薄うすき (báo)pɑu³⁵
36woman女人にょにん (nǚrén)ny²¹ ʐən³⁵
37man (adult male)男おとこ人じん (nánrén)nan³⁵ ʐən³⁵
38man (human being)人ひと (rén)ʐən³⁵
39child孩子 (háizi), 兒童じどう／儿童 (értóng), 小しょう孩 (xiǎohái)xai³⁵ tsɿ⁰, ɑɻ³⁵ tʰoŋ³⁵, ɕiɑu²¹ xai³⁵
40wife妻子さいし (qīzi), 老婆ろうば (lǎopó) (informal)tɕi⁵⁵ tsɿ⁰, lɑu²¹ pʰwɔ³⁵
41husband丈夫じょうふ (zhàngfu), 老公ろうこう (lǎogōng) (informal)tʂɑŋ⁵¹ fu⁰, lɑu²¹ koŋ⁵⁵
42mother母親ははおや／母はは亲 (mǔqīn), 媽媽／妈妈 (māma) (informal)mu²¹ tɕin⁵⁵, ma⁵⁵ ma⁰
43father父親ちちおや／父ちち亲 (fùqīn) (formal), 爸爸 (bàba) (informal)fu⁵¹ tɕin⁵⁵, pa⁵¹ pa⁰
44animal動物どうぶつ／动物 (dòngwù)toŋ⁵¹ u⁵¹
45fish魚さかな／鱼 (yú)y³⁵
46bird鳥とり／鸟 (niǎo)niɑu²¹⁴
47dog狗いぬ (gǒu)kou²¹⁴
48louse虱しらみ (shī)ʂʐ⁵⁵
49snake蛇へび (shé)ʂɤ³⁵
50worm蟲むし／虫むし (chóng) (worm, insect), 蠕蟲／蠕虫 (rúchóng) (generic), 蚯蚓みみず (qiūyǐn) (earthworm)tʂʰoŋ³⁵, ʐu³⁵ tʂʰoŋ³⁵, tɕʰiou⁵⁵ in²¹⁴
51tree樹き／树 (shù)ʂu⁵¹
52forest森林しんりん (sēnlín)sən⁵⁵ lin³⁵
53stick樹き枝えだ／树枝 (shùzhī) (tree branch), 枝えだ條じょう／枝えだ条じょう (zhītiáo) (formal), 枝えだ子こ (zhīzi) (informal)ʂu⁵¹ tʂʐ⁵⁵, tʂʐ⁵⁵ tʰiɑu³⁵, tʂʐ⁵⁵ tsɿ⁰
54fruit水みず果はて (shǔiguǒ)ʂuei³⁵ kuɔ²¹⁴
55seed種子しゅし／种子 (zhǒngzi)tʂoŋ²¹ tsɿ⁰
56leaf葉は／叶かのう (yè), 葉子ようこ／叶かのう子こ (yèzi)iɛ⁵¹, iɛ⁵¹ tsɿ⁰
57root根ね (gēn)kən⁵⁵
58bark (of a tree)樹皮じゅひ／树皮 (shùpí)ʂu⁵¹ pʰi³⁵
59flower花はな (huā)xua⁵⁵
60grass草くさ (cǎo)tsɑu²¹⁴
61rope繩なわ／绳 (shéng), 繩なわ子こ／绳子 (shéngzi)ʂɤŋ³⁵, ʂɤŋ³⁵ tsɿ⁰
62skin皮かわ (pí), 皮膚ひふ／皮かわ肤 (pífū)pʰi³⁵, pʰi³⁵ fu⁵⁵
63meat肉にく (ròu)ʐou⁵¹
64blood血ち (xiě, xuè, xuě), 血液けつえき (xiěyè, xuèyè, xuěyè)ɕiɛ²¹⁴, ɕyɛ⁵¹, ɕyɛ²¹⁴, ɕiɛ²¹⁴ iɛ⁵¹, ɕyɛ⁵¹ iɛ⁵¹, ɕyɛ²¹⁴ iɛ⁵¹
65bone骨ほね (gǔ), 骨ほね頭あたま／骨ほね头 (gǔtóu)ku²¹⁴, ku²¹ tʰou³⁵
66fat (noun)脂肪しぼう (zhīfáng)tʂʐ⁵⁵ faŋ³⁵
67egg蛋 (dàn), 鷄にわとり蛋／鸡蛋 (jīdàn) (chicken egg)tan⁵¹, tɕi⁵⁵ tan⁵¹
68horn角かく (jiǎo)tɕiɑu²¹⁴
69tail尾お (wěi), 尾お巴ともえ (wěibā)uei²¹⁴, uei²¹ pa⁰
70feather羽毛うもう (yǔmáo)y²¹ mɑu³⁵
71hair頭髮とうはつ／头发 (tóufa)tʰou³⁵ fa⁰
72head頭あたま／头 (tóu)tʰou³⁵ fa⁰
73ear耳みみ朵 (ěrduo)aɻ²¹ tuɔ⁰
74eye眼睛がんせい (yǎnjing)iɛn²¹ tɕiŋ⁰
75nose鼻はな (bí), 鼻はな子こ (bízi)pi³⁵, pi³⁵ tsɿ⁰
76mouth嘴くちばし (zuǐ), 嘴くちばし巴ともえ (zuǐba)tsuei²¹⁴, tsuei²¹ pa⁰
77tooth牙きば齒ぱ／牙きば齿 (yáchǐ)ia³⁵ tʂʰʐ²¹⁴
78tongue (organ)舌した (shé), 舌頭ぜっとう／舌した头 (shétou)ʂɤ³⁵, ʂɤ³⁵ tʰou⁰
79fingernail指ゆび甲かぶと (zhǐjia)tʂʐ³⁵ tɕia²¹
80foot腳／脚あし (jiǎo)tɕiɑu²¹⁴
81leg腿もも (tuǐ)tʰuei²¹⁴
82knee膝ひざ (xī), 膝ひざ蓋ぶた／膝ひざ盖 (xīgài)ɕi⁵⁵, ɕi⁵⁵ kai⁵¹
83hand手て (shǒu)ʂou²¹⁴
84wing翼つばさ (yì) (literary), 翅膀 (chìbǎng)i⁵¹, tʂʐ⁵¹ paŋ²¹⁴
85belly肚子 (dùzi)tu⁵¹ tsɿ⁰
86guts腸ちょう子こ／肠子 (chángzi)tʂaŋ³⁵ tsɿ⁰
87neck脖子 (bózi)pwɔ³⁵ tsɿ⁰
88back背せ (bèi)pei⁵¹
89breast胸むね (xiōng) (chest (affix)), 胸部きょうぶ (xiōngbù) (chest (generic)), 胸むね膛 (xiōngtáng) (chest (acedemic)), 乳房ちぶさ (rǔfáng) (female organ)ɕyoŋ⁵⁵, ɕyoŋ⁵⁵ pu⁵¹, ɕyoŋ⁵⁵ tʰaŋ³⁵, ʐu²¹ faŋ³⁵
90heart心臟しんぞう／心こころ脏 (xīnzàng)ɕin⁵⁵ tsaŋ⁵¹
91liver肝きも (gān) (affix), 肝臟かんぞう／肝かん脏 (gānzàng)kan⁵⁵, kan⁵⁵ tsaŋ⁵¹
92to drink喝かつ (hē)xɤ⁵⁵
93to eat吃ども (chī)tʂʐ⁵⁵
94to bite咬 (yǎo)iɑu²¹⁴
95to suck吸 (xī) (affix), 啜すす (chuò) (sip), 吮吸 (shǔnxī) (suck)ɕi⁵⁵, tʂuo⁵¹, ʂuən²¹ ɕi⁵⁵
96to spit吐 (tǔ) (generic), 吐口水すい (tǔ kǒushuǐ) (lit. spit saliva, informal), 吐痰 (tǔtán) (lit. spit phlegm, formal)tʰu²¹⁴, tʰu²¹ kʰou³⁵ ʂuei²¹⁴, tʰu²¹ tʰan³⁵
97to vomit嘔／呕 (ǒu) (affix), 吐 (tù) (informal), 嘔吐おうと／呕吐 (ǒutù) (formal)ou²¹⁴, tʰu⁵¹, ou²¹ tʰu⁵¹
98to blow吹 (chuī)tʂʰuei⁵⁵
99to breathe呼吸こきゅう (hūxī)xu⁵⁵ ɕi⁵⁵
100to laugh笑わらい (xiào)ɕiau⁵¹
101to see看み (kàn)kʰan⁵¹
102to hear聼 (tīng)tʰiŋ⁵⁵
103to know知道ともみち (zhīdào), 曉あかつき得とく／晓得 (xiǎode), 認識にんしき／认识 (rènshi) (to recognise)tʂʐ⁵⁵ tau⁵¹, ɕiɑu²¹ tə⁰, ʐən⁵¹ ʂʐ⁰
104to think想そう (xiǎng)ɕiɑŋ²¹⁴
105to smell嗅 (xiù), 聞／闻 (wén)ɕiou⁵¹, uen³⁵
106to fear怕 (pà)pʰa⁵¹
107to sleep睡ねむ (shuì), 睡ねむ覺さとし／睡ねむ觉 (shuìjiào)ʂuei⁵¹, ʂuei⁵¹ tɕiɑu⁵¹
108to live活かつ (huó)xuɔ³⁵
109to die死し (sǐ)sɿ²¹⁴
110to kill殺ころせ／杀 (shā)ʂa⁵⁵
111to fight吵架 (chǎojià) (argue), 打だ架か (dǎjià) (fists), 打だ仗 (dǎzhàng) (war)tʂɑu²¹ tɕia⁵¹, ta²¹ tɕia⁵¹, ta²¹ tʂɑŋ⁵¹
112to hunt打だ獵りょう／打だ猎 (dǎliè)ta²¹ liɛ⁵¹
113to hit打だ (dǎ)ta²¹
114to cut割わり (gē) (cut in two), 切きり (qiē) (slice), 剪 (jiǎn) (scissors)kɤ⁵⁵, tɕiɛ⁵⁵, tɕiɛn²¹⁴
115to split劈開へきかい／劈开 (pīkāi) (transitive, split open), 裂きれ開ひらく／裂きれ开 (lièkāi) (intransitive, split open), 分ぶん開ひらく／分ぶん开 (fēnkāi) (split up)pʰi⁵⁵ kʰai⁵⁵, liɛ⁵¹ kʰai⁵⁵, fən⁵⁵ kʰai⁵⁵
116to stab刺とげ (cì)tsɿ⁵¹
117to scratch搔 (sāo), 抓つめ (zhuā)sɑu⁵⁵, tʂua⁵⁵
118to dig挖 (wā), 掘ほ (jué)ua⁵⁵, tɕyɛ³⁵
119to swim游泳ゆうえい (yóuyǒng)iou³⁵ yoŋ²¹⁴
120to fly飛ひ／飞 (fēi)fei⁵⁵
121to walk走はし (zǒu) (generic), 走路そうろ (zǒulù) (walk on foot (informal)), 步行ほこう (bùxíng) (go on foot (formal))tsou²¹⁴, tsou²¹ lu⁵¹, pu⁵¹ ɕiŋ³⁵
122to come來き／来き (lái)lai³⁵
123to lie (as in a bed)躺 (tǎng)tʰɑŋ²¹⁴
124to sit坐すわ (zuò)tsuɔ⁵¹
125to stand站 (zhàn)tʂan⁵¹
126to turn (intransitive)轉てん／转 (zhuǎn) (change direction)tʂuan²¹⁴
127to fall落下らっか (luòxià) (drop), 掉下 (diàoxià) (drop)luɔ⁵¹ ɕia⁵¹, tiɑu⁵¹ ɕia⁵¹
128to give給きゅう／给 (gěi)kei²¹⁴
129to hold握にぎ (wò), 拿 (ná)uɔ⁵³, na³⁵
130to squeeze擠／挤 (jǐ)tɕi²¹⁴
131to rub揉もめ (róu) (massage, knead)ʐou³⁵
132to wash洗あらい (xǐ)ɕi²¹⁴
133to wipe擦こす (cā)tsʰa⁵⁵
134to pull拉ひしげ (lā)la⁵⁵
135to push推 (tuī)tʰuei⁵⁵
136to throw扔 (rēng), 丟／丢 (diū)ʐɤŋ⁵⁵, tiou⁵⁵
137to tie綁／绑 (bǎng)paŋ²¹³
138to sew縫ぬい／缝 (féng)fɤŋ³⁵
139to count數かず／数かず (shǔ), 點てん／点てん (diǎn)ʂu²¹⁴, tiɛn²¹⁴
140to say說せつ／说 (shuō), 講こう／讲 (jiǎng)ʂuɔ⁵⁵, tɕiɑŋ²¹⁴
141to sing唱 (chàng)tʂʰɑŋ⁵¹
142to play玩 (wán)uan³⁵
143to float浮 (fú)fu³⁵
144to flow流ながれ (liú)liou³⁵
145to freeze結ゆい冰／结冰 (jiébīng), 凍結とうけつ／冻结 (dòngjié)tɕiɛ³⁵ piŋ⁵⁵, toŋ⁵¹ tɕiɛ³⁵
146to swell膨脹ぼうちょう／膨胀 (péngzhàng)pʰɤŋ tʂɑŋ⁵¹
147sun太陽たいよう／太ふとし阳 (tàiyang)tʰai⁵¹ iaŋ⁰
148moon月つき亮あきら (yuèliang)yɛ⁵¹ liɑŋ⁰
149star星ほし (xīng), 恆星こうせい／恒星こうせい (héngxīng) (scientific (fixed star))ɕiŋ⁵⁵, xɤŋ³⁵ ɕiŋ⁵⁵
150water水みず (shuǐ)ʂuei²¹⁴
151rain雨あめ (yǔ)y²¹⁴
152river河かわ (hé)xɤ³⁵
153lake湖みずうみ (hú)xu³⁵
154sea海うみ (hǎi)xai²¹⁴
155salt鹽しお／盐 (yán)iɛn³⁵
156stone石いし (shí) (affix), 石頭いしあたま／石いし头 (shítou)ʂʐ³⁵, ʂʐ³⁵ tʰou⁰
157sand沙すな (shā)ʂa⁵⁵
158dust塵土じんど／尘土 (chéntǔ)tʂən³⁵ tʰu²¹⁴
159earth土壤どじょう (tǔyǎng)tʰu³⁵ ʐɑŋ²¹⁴
160cloud雲くも／云うん (yún)yn³⁵
161fog霧きり／雾 (wù)u⁵¹
162sky天てん (tiān)tʰiɛn⁵⁵
163wind風ふう／风 (fēng)fɤŋ⁵⁵
164snow雪ゆき (xuě)ɕyɛ²¹⁴
165ice冰 (bīng)piŋ⁵⁵
166smoke煙けむり／烟けむり (yān)iɛn⁵⁵
167fire火ひ (huǒ)xuɔ²¹⁴
168ash灰はい (huī) (ashes or dust), 灰燼かいじん／灰はい烬 (huījìn)xuei⁵⁵, xuei⁵⁵ tɕin⁵¹
169to burn燒やき／烧 (shāo)ʂɑu⁵⁵
170road路みち (lù)lu⁵¹
171mountain山やま (shān)ʂan⁵⁵
172red紅べに／红 (hóng)xoŋ³⁵
173green綠みどり／绿 (lǜ)ly⁵¹
174yellow黃き／黄き (huáng)xuaŋ³⁵
175white白しろ (bái)pai³⁵
176black黑くろ (hēi)xei⁵⁵
177night夜よる晚ばん (yèwǎn)iɛ⁵¹ uan²¹⁴
178day白はく天たかし (báitiān)pai³⁵ tʰiɛn⁵⁵
179year年とし (nián)niɛn³⁵
180warm溫暖おんだん／温暖おんだん (wēnnuǎn)uən⁵⁵ nuan²¹⁴
181cold冷ひや (lěng)lɤŋ²¹⁴
182full滿みつる／满 (mǎn)man²¹⁴
183new新しん (xīn)ɕin⁵⁵
184old老ろう (lǎo) (not young), 舊きゅう／旧きゅう (jiù) (not new)lɑu²¹⁴, tɕiou⁵¹
185good好このみ (hǎo)xɑu²¹⁴
186bad壞／坏 (huài)xuai⁵¹
187rotten爛ただれ／烂 (làn)lan⁵¹
188dirty髒／脏 (zāng)tsɑŋ⁵⁵
189straight直じき (zhí)tʂʐ³⁵
190round圓えん／圆 (yuán)yɛn³⁵
191sharp (as a knife)尖とんが (jiān) (prefix), 利り (lì) (prefix), 鋒ほこさき利り／锋利 (fēnglì), 銳利えいり／锐利 (ruìlì)tɕiɛn⁵⁵, li⁵¹, fɤŋ⁵⁵ li⁵¹, ʐuei⁵¹ li⁵¹
192dull (as a knife)鈍どん／钝 (dùn)tuən⁵¹
193smooth光ひかり滑すべり (guānghuá)kuɑŋ⁵⁵ xua³⁵
194wet濕しめ／湿しめ (shī)ʂʐ⁵⁵
195dry乾いぬい／干ひ (gān)kan⁵⁵
196correct對たい／对 (duì) (informal), 正確せいかく／正せい确 (zhèngquè) (formal)tuei⁵¹, tʂɤŋ⁵¹ tɕʰyɛ⁵¹
197near近ちか (jìn)tɕin⁵¹
198far遠とお／远 (yuǎn)yɛn²¹⁴
199right右みぎ (yòu)iou⁵¹
200left左ひだり (zuǒ)tsuɔ²¹⁴
201at在ざい (zài)tsai⁵¹
202in在ざい…… 裡うら／在ざい…… 里さと (zài… lǐ)tsai⁵¹ li²¹⁴
203with跟 (gēn)kən⁵⁵
204and和わ (hé)xɤ³⁵
205if如果 (rúguǒ)ʐu³⁵ kuɔ²¹⁴
206because因よし爲ため／因いん为 (yīnwèi)in⁵⁵ uei⁵¹
207name名な (míng) (affix), 名字みょうじ (míngzi) (generic)miŋ³⁵, miŋ³⁵ tsɿ⁰

Sources

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See also

[edit]
Swadesh lists
Individual languages
Language families, family branches, and geographic groupings
Constructed languages
Reconstructed proto-languages
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